| 单词 | 上下文 |
| 释义 | 〔pronoun〕One of a class of words that function as substitutes for nouns or noun phrases and designate persons or things asked for, previously specified, or understood from the context.代词：其作用是代替名词或名词词组以指代所指的、预选确定的或由上下文可被理解的人或事的词类〔text〕from Latin [structure, context, body of a passage] [from past participle of] texere [to weave, fabricate] * see teks- 源自 拉丁语 [结构，上下文，文体] 源自texere的过去分词 [构成，构造] * 参见 teks- 〔literate〕For most of its long history in English,literate has meant only "familiar with literature,” or more generally, "well-educated, learned";it is only during the last hundred years that it has also come to refer to the basic ability to read and write.Its antonymilliterate has an equally broad range of meanings: anilliterate person may be incapable of reading a shopping list or perhaps may only be unable to grasp an allusion to Shakespeare or Keats.The termfunctional illiterate is often used to describe a person who can read or write to some degree, but below a minimum level required to function in even a limited social situation or job setting.More recently, the meanings of the wordsliteracy and illiteracy have been extended from their original connection with reading and literature to any body of knowledge. For example, "geographic illiterates" cannot identify the countries on a map,and "computer illiterates" are unable to use a word-processing system.None of these uses ofliteracy or illiteracy are incorrect, but it might be preferable to use another word in instances where the context does not make the meaning clear.在英语悠久的历史中，literate 大部分时期只表示“精通文学的”或更概括一些， 指“受过良好教育的，有学问的”；仅仅是在上个世纪它才开始表示读和写的基本能力。它的反义词illiterate 有着同样广泛的意义： 一个illereare 的人也许连张购物单都不会读， 或许只是不理解莎士比亚或济慈的典故。functional illiterate 一词用于描写一个具有一定程度的读写能力， 但还不到甚至在一个有限的社会环境或工作环境中运用语言所须的最低水平。最近，literacy 和 illiteracy 这两词的含义已经从它们原先与阅读和文学的联系扩展到与任何一种知识的联系。 例如，一个“地理盲”不会在地图上寻找国家，而一个“计算机盲”不会使用文字信息处理系统。literacy 和 illiteracy 的这些用法都是正确的， 但是当上下文可能导致意义混淆时还是用其它词更好一些〔momentarily〕Momentarily is widely used in speech to mean "in a moment,”as inThe manager is on another line, but she'll be with you momentarily. This usage rarely leads to ambiguitysince the intended sense can usually be determined on the basis of the tense of the verb and the context.Nonetheless, many critics hold that the adverb should be reserved for the senses "for a moment" or "moment by moment,”and the extended usage is unacceptable to 59 percent of the Usage Panel.Momentarily 被广泛用于说话中， 表示“立即”，如在经理在和别人通话，但她马上会与你通话的。 这种用法很少导致语义模糊，因为要表达的意思通常可以由动词时态和上下文来决定。可是，许多评论家认为这一副词只应保留“片刻”或“即刻”的含义，对于其引申的含义，用法专题讨论小组中59%的人不予接受〔man〕Traditionally,man and words derived from it have been used generically to designate any or all of the human race irrespective of sex.In Old Englishthis was the principal sense ofman, which meant "a human being" regardless of sex;the wordswer and wyf (or w÷pman and wifman ) were used to refer to "a male human being" and "a female human being" respectively. But in Middle Englishman displaced wer as the term for "a male human being,”whilewyfman (which evolved into present-day woman ) was retained for "a female human being.” The result of these changes was an assymetrical arrangement that many criticize as sexist.Many writers have revised some of their practices accordingly.But the precise implications of the usage vary according to the context and the particular use ofman or its derivatives. · Man sometimes appears to have the sense of "person" or "people" when it is used as a count noun, as inA man is known by the company he keeps and Men have long yearned to unlock the secrets of the atom, and in phrases likethe common man and the man in the street. Here the generic interpretation arises indirectly:if a man is known by the company he keeps,then so, by implication, is a woman.For this reasonthe generic interpretation of these uses ofman is not possible where the applicability of the predicate varies according to the sex of the individual. Thus it would be inappropriate to say thatMen are the only animals that can conceive at any time, since the sentence literally asserts that the ability to conceive applies to male human beings.This usage presumes that males can be taken as representatives of the species.In almost all cases,however, the wordsperson and people can be substituted for man and men, often with a gain in clarity. · By contrast,man functions more as a generic when it is used without an article in the singular to refer to the human race, as in sentences likeThe capacity for language is unique to man or in phrases like man's inhumanity to man. But this use ofman is also ambiguous, since it can refer exclusively to male members of the human race.In most contexts wordssuch ashumanity or humankind will convey the generic sense of this use of man. · On the whole,the Usage Panel accepts the generic use ofman, the women members significantly less than the men. The sentenceIf early man suffered from a lack of information, modern man is tyrannized by an excess of it was acceptable to 81 percent of the Panel (including 58 percent of the women and 92 percent of the men).The Panel also accepted compound words derived from genericman. The sentenceThe Great Wall is the only man-made structure visible from space was acceptable to 86 percent (including 76 percent of the women and 91 percent of the men).The sentence"The history of language is the history of mankind" (James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge) was acceptable to 76 percent (including 63 percent of the women and 82 percent of the men). Such compounds were acceptable even when the context required that they be applied chiefly to women.Thus, 66 percent of the Panel (including 57 percent of the women and 71 percent of the men) accepts the wordmanpower in the sentence Countries that do not permit women to participate in the work force are at a disadvantage in competing with those that do avail themselves of that extra source of manpower. · A related set of problems is raised by the use ofman in forming the names of occupational and social rolessuch asbusinessman, chairman, spokesman, layman, and freshman, as well as in analogous formationssuch asunsportsmanlike and showmanship. Some condemn this use categorically;however, these words remained acceptable to a majority of the Usage Panel when they were used to refer to a role or class in the abstractbut were rejected when they were used to refer to a woman.Thus the general use ofchairman was acceptable to 67 percent of the Panel (including 52 percent of the women and 76 percent of the men) in the sentence The chairman will be appointed by the Faculty Senate. But only 48 percent (including 43 percent of the women and 50 percent of the men) accepted the use of the word inEmily Owen, chairman of the Mayor's Task Force, issued a statement assuring residents that their views would be solicited, where it is applied to a woman. · Several strategies have been suggested for replacing the categorical use of compounds formed withman. Parallel terms likebusinesswoman, spokeswoman and chairwoman are increasingly used to refer to women. Also in use are common-gender terms coined withperson, such asbusinessperson, spokesperson, and chairperson. For occupational titles ending inman, new standards of official usage have been established by the U.S. Department of Labor and other government agencies.In official contexts termssuch asfirefighter and police officer are now generally used in place of fireman and policeman. · A majority of the Panelists rejected the verbman when it was used to refer to an activity performed by women. The sentenceMembers of the League of Women Voters will be manning the registration desk was unacceptable to 56 percent of the Panel (including 61 percent of the women and 54 percent of the men). See Usage Note at -ess ,people 传统上，man 以及它的衍生字一般是用来指任何人或整个人类， 不考虑性别。在古英语中，这就是man 这个字主要的意思， 即“人” 而不分性别；单词wer 和 wyf （或 woepman 和 wifman )则分别用以指“男人”和“女人”。 但在中古英语时man 取代了 wer 这个词， 也具有“男人”的意义了；而wyfman （这个字发展演变成了今天的 woman 这个字）作为“女人”这个意思被保留了下来。 这些变化的结果是，作为性别歧视者所批评的匀称排列。为此，许多作家相应地修订了他们部分的创作活动。但是这用法的准确含义取决于它的上下文以及man 的具体用途或它的衍生字。 当man 这个字被当作一个可数名词来用时，它有时似乎具有“一个人”或“人们”的意思， 如在被他所在的那个公司熟悉了解的人 和 很久以来，人们都期盼着解开原子的秘密 ， 以及如下短语中普通的人 和 街上的人 。 这里，一般的理解源于间接地推理：如果一个男人是被他所在的公司了解的话，其言下之意是，一个女人也是被他所在的公司熟悉了解的。正是这个原因，使得man 当此一般理解之义用时，其谓语随着个人性别的改变而变化是不可能的。 所以，说人是唯一能在任何时候思考的动物 是不适当的， 因为这句话字面之义是指男人的思考能力。这种用法是假定男人可以作为人类的代表。几乎毫无例外的是，词person 和 people 可以用 man 和 men 来取代，且后两字意思更清楚。 相反，当man 以单数不带冠词出现用以指人类时，它更是指一类、一属， 如在象句子只有人才有语言能力 或象短语 人类对人类的不人道 中。 但man 若以这种形式出现，其意思也会模糊不清， 因为其可只指人类中的男性成员。在大多数的行文中，例如humanity 或 humankind 这样的字也传达了 man 这种用法的一般意义。 总的说来，在用法专题使用小组成员中接受man 这种一般用法的女性比男性明显少得多。 下面这句话如果说古代人受信息不足之苦的话，那么现代人则是受信息过量之虐待了 在小组中有81的成员可接受 （其中女性成员中的接受率为58，男性中则为92)。专题小组会还接受作为一般意义的man 构成的复合词。 长城是太空中的唯一可见的人造物 这句话有86的成员接受 （其中女性成员的接受率为76，而男性中为91)。“语言史就是一部人类史” （詹姆士·布拉斯瑞特·格里诺和乔治·莱曼·基特里奇）这句话的接受率为76（基中在女性成员中有63接受，而男性中为82)。 即使是上下行文所需的字主要指的是女人，这种复合词仍然被接受。因此小组中的66（其中女性委员的57，男性的71)接受了manpower 这个词在下句的用法： 那些不允许女人加入生产力大军的国家和那些允许女人加入生产力大军的国家相比，在处理剩余劳动力这一点上明显处于竞争的劣势 。 由于man 的使用所引起的一系列相关问题产生了， 在构成职业或社会角色类别的名称，如商人、主席、发言人、外行 和 渔夫 ， 以及将这个字用于类似的构词法中，如违反运动精神的 和 善于表演的才能 。 有些人谴责这种类别的用法；然而，当它们抽象地指某种角色或阶层时，这些词仍能得到用法专题使用小组大多数人的接受；但当它们用由于指女性时，这些词就被拒绝了。因此在句子主席由职工委员会指定 中 主席 的这种一般用法就得到了67小组成员的接受（其中在女性成员中为52，而男性中为76)。 但是，在句子艾米莉·欧文，市长任务小组的主席，发表了一个声明，向市长保证将考虑他们的观点 中这个字的用法，由于是指女性，只有48的成员接受（其中在女性成员中的接受率为43，而男性中为50)。 对于如何替换用man 构成的类别复合词，几种构思被提了出来。 与之相对的复合词如女商人、女发言人 和 女主席 越来越多地被用来指女性。 另外，用person 构成的中性词也创造了出来， 如商人、发言人 和 主席 。 对于用man 结尾的职业名称， 美国政府劳工部和其它政府机构已建立起了新的官方运用标准。在官方行文，现在一般用如firefighter 和 police officer 代替 fireman 和 policeman 。 大多数的小组成员反对将动词man 用于指那些女性从事的活动。 句子登记处将配备女性选民联盟的成员 在用法专题使用小组中的反对率是56（其中在女性成员中的反对率是61，而男性中为54) 参见 -ess,people〔Naugahyde〕A trademark used for an artificial leather made of vinyl-coated fabric. This trademark, which often occurs in print as an attributive, sometimes occurs in figurative contexts as well:瑙格海德人造皮：由带有己烯基的织物制成的人造皮物的商标，这一商标，经常在印刷中以形容词的形式出现，有时也在比喻的上下文中出现：〔connection〕Reference or relation to something else; context:背景：与其它事物的关系或关联；上下文：〔lucre〕When William Tyndale translatedaiskhron kerdos, "shameful gain" (Titus 1:11), as filthy lucre in his edition of the Bible, he was tarring the wordlucre for the rest of its existence. But we cannot lay the pejorative sense oflucre completely at Tyndale's door. He was merely a link,albeit a strong one,in a process that had begun long before with respect to the ancestor of our word,the Latin wordlucrum, "material gain, profit.” This process was probably controlled by the inevitable conjunction of profit, especially monetary profit, with evils such as greed.In Latinlucrum also meant "avarice,” and in Middle Englishlucre, besides meaning "monetary gain, profit,” meant "illicit gain.”Furthermore, many of the contexts in which the neutral sense of the word appeared were not that neutral,as in "It is a wofull thyng . . . ffor lucre of goode . . . A man to fals his othe [it is a sad thing for a man to betray his oath for monetary gain].”Tyndale thus merely helped the process along when he gave us the phrasefilthy lucre. 当威廉·廷代尔在他的《圣经》版本里把aiskhon kerdos （“可耻的收获”）翻译成 filthy lucre 时， 他就把lucre 这个词当作贬义了， 这个词以后也就这样解释了。但是我们不能把lucre 这个词的贬义全部归于廷代尔名下。 他只是整个过程的一个环节，尽管是个有力的环节，这个过程早在我们这个词的祖先，拉丁字lucrum （意为“物质获得，利润”）就开始了。 这个过程很可能与带有类似贪婪这样的罪恶利润，尤其是钱财利润不可避免地联系在一起。在拉丁文里，lucrum 也有“贪婪”的意思。 在中世纪英语中，lucre 除了有“钱财收入，利润”的意思之外， 还意味着“不正当的所得”。更进一步说，即使这个词意思是中性的，但上下文却不是那么的中性，比如“一个人为了钱财背弃自己的誓言。”廷代尔在给我们短语filthy lucre 时，仅仅有助于把这个过程延续下来 〔contextual〕Of, involving, or depending on a context.上下文：上下文的、涉及上下文的或取决于上下文的〔concordance〕An alphabetical index of all the words in a text or corpus of texts, showing every contextual occurrence of a word:字母索引：依字母顺序对文章正文或作品全集所作的索引，其中显示每一个词的上下文：〔hardly〕The use ofhardly with a negative is avoided in Standard English. Some critics have been puzzled that adverbs such ashardly, rarely, and scarcely should be treated as negatives in the traditional strictures against double negation, which tars sentences likeI couldn't hardly see him with the same brush as I didn't get none. After all, they argue, the sentenceMary hardly laughed entails that Mary did laugh, not that she didn't,and therefore does not express a negative proposition.Buthardly and scarcely occur with other negative expressions in a number of ways. For one thing, they combine with items such asany and at all, which are characteristically associated with negative contexts: we sayI hardly saw him at all or I never saw him at all but notI occasionally saw him at all; we sayI hardly had any time or I didn't have any time but notI had any time, and so on. Like other negative adverbs,hardly triggers inversion of the subject and auxiliary when it begins a sentence. Thus we sayHardly had I arrived when she left, on the pattern of Never have I read such a book or At no time has he condemned the movement. Such inversion is not used with other adverbs:we would not sayOccasionally has he addressed this question or To a slight degree have they changed their position. The fact is that adverbs such ashardly are semantically negative in that they qualify a state or an event relative to the limiting case of nonoccurrence.Thus the meaning ofhardly is, roughly, "almost not at all"; the meaning ofrarely is "practically never"; and so forth. These adverbs are felt to have a negative component in their meaning,and it should not be surprising that grammarians have reacted to combinations ofhardly with negatives in the same way that they have reacted to combinations of pairs of negatives such as not and none. See Usage Note at double negative ,rarely ,scarcely Hardly 和一个否定词在一起的用法在标准英语中应尽量避免， 一些批评学家一直怀疑象hardly，rarely 和 scarcely 这样的副词在传统的双重否定的句中应被视为否定词， 这样的词使句子象I couldn't hardly see him 和 I didn't get none 一样被弄糟了， 他们争论说，毕竟句子Mary hardly laughed 的意思是玛丽的确笑了， 而不是她没笑，所以不表示否定的建议。但是hardly 和 scarcely 和其他的否定表示一起在许多方面出现， 举例说，他们和象any 和 at all 这样独特的和否定上下文联系的条目组合在一起， 我们说I hardly saw him at all 或 I never saw him at all , 但并不是I occasionally saw him at all； 我们说I hardly had any time 或 I didn't have any time 但不是I had any time 等。 象其它否定副词，hardly 在句子开头时引起主语和助动词的倒装， 于是我们说Hardly had I arrived when she left， 和 Never have I read such a book 或 At no time has he condemned the movement. 等同样的句型。 别的副词并不用这样的倒装：我们不能说Occasionally has he addressed this question 或 To a slight degree have they changed their position 。 事实是象hardly 这样的副词语义上是否定的， 他们限定修饰了与不发生有关的状态或事件。于是hardly 的意思大概是“几乎根本不”； rarely 的意思大概是“实际上没有”；等等。 这些副词在他们的意思里留有否定的成分，语法学家们对hardly 和否定词组合的反应和对一对否定词如 not 和 none组合的反应一样是不足为奇的 参见 double negative,rarely,scarcely〔context〕The part of a text or statement that surrounds a particular word or passage and determines its meaning.上下文：文章或叙述中围绕着某个特定词或段落并且决定其含义的部分〔ax〕To understand the origin of the idiomax to grind, we need to know thatgrind means "to sharpen.” This phrase is said to have come from a story by the 19th-century journalist Charles Miner (alias Poor Robert) about a seemingly friendly manwho was able by flattery to persuade a young boy to turn a grindstone for him.The tale first appeared in the Luzerne, Pennsylvania,Federalist on September 7, 1810, under the title "Who'll Turn Grindstones?” and later in an 1815 book entitledEssays from the Desk of Poor Robert the Scribe. Because "Poor Robert" was confused with "Poor Richard,”the story has often been erroneously attributed to Benjamin Franklin.The idiom itself is an Americanism—a word or expression originating in the United States.It was at first restricted to political contexts,but quotations from James Joyce ("Skin-the-Goat . . . evidently with an axe to grind, was airing his grievances")and George Bernard Shaw ("distinguished statesmen of different nations . . . each with a national axe to grind") attest that the phrase has traveled abroad and,as we know only too well, is no longer found only in political contexts.为了理解成语ax to grind 的出处， 我们需要知道grind 意思是“磨尖”。 这个短语据说出自19世纪旅行家查尔斯·麦纳（别名穷罗伯特）所写的关于一个似乎很友善的人的故事，他能够奉承地劝说一名男孩为他翻过一块磨光石。这个传说第一次出现在1810年9月7日宾夕法尼亚州的卢泽恩，在1810年9月7日题为“谁将推翻磨石”的联邦制拥护者 中提到， 之后1815年又在名为作家穷·罗伯特文集 一书中提到。 因为"poor Robert和"poor Richard"易被弄混淆，这个故事经常被错误地认为是本杰明·弗兰克林创作的。这个成语本身是美国式的词或表达源于美国。一开始被限于在政治性言词的情况中使用，但是从以下的引文表明这个短语已广泛地传播，一个是引于詹姆斯·琼斯（“这个显然别有企图的披着人皮的狼，正在诉苦”），另一个引自乔治·萧伯纳（“辨认出不同国家的人…每个国家都有自己国家的打算”），正如我们所熟知的，它不会只在政治性言论的上下文间才可以找到的〔deceptively〕There appears to be a great deal of confusion about the sense ofdeceptively when it is used to modify an adjective. Does the sentenceThe proof is deceptively simple mean that the proof is simpler or more difficult than it appears?The Usage Panel was asked to choose among paraphrases for the sentenceThe pool is deceptively shallow: 50 percent said that it means "The pool is shallower than it appears";32 percent said that it means "The pool is deeper than it appears";and 18 percent found it ambiguous.Thus the writer who used such a sentence in a warning notice could expect that at least half the public would either misinterpret the messageor would be uncertain as to which sense was intended.Where the context does not make the meaning clear,a substitute should be used,asThe pool is shallower than it looks or The proof is simple, despite appearances. 当用deceptively 修饰一形容词时，该词的意思似乎大有令人困惑之处。 The proof is deceptively simple 一句中，是比它看起来更容易的意思呢， 还是比它看起来更难的意思呢?有人曾要求用法专题使用小组的成员对The pool is deceptively shallow 一句的释义进行选择， 百分之五十的成员认为该句意为：“池塘看起来很浅”；百分之三十二的成员认为该句意为：“池塘看起很深”；而百分之十八的成员则认为该句意义含混模糊。因此，把这句话写在警告牌上的作者可能会发现至少有一半的公众不是误解这则信息，就是不能确定这句话的意图究竟是什么。在上下文不能使意义明了的地方，应该换一种表达方式，如这个池塘比它看起来要浅 或 证明很简单，尽管看起来有些难 〔equal〕It has been argued thatequal is an absolute term— two quantities either are or are not equal—and hence cannot be qualified as to degree.Therefore one cannot logically speak ofa more equal allocation of resources among the departments. However, this usage was accepted by 71 percent of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey.What is more, objection to the usage betrays a widespread but questionable assumptionthat it is in mathematics and logic that we find the model of accuracy most appropriate to the everyday use of language,a supposition that also underlies traditional grammatical discussions of words such asunique, parallel, and center. According to this account,the "precise" or "literal" meaning ofequal is realized in the use of the equal sign in an arithmetic expression such as 5 + 2 = 7; and the ordinary-language uses of the term,though they may be permissible,represent "loose" or "imprecise" extensions of that sense.But in fact the mathematical concept of equality is a poor model for using the wordequal to describe relations between things in the world. As applied to such things,statements of equality are always relative to an implicit standard of tolerance.When someone saysThe two boards are of equal length, we assume that the equality is reckoned to some order of approximation determined by the context;if we did not,we would be required always to usenearly equal when speaking of the dimensions of physical objects. What is more,we often want to predicate equality of things that do not admit of quantitative measurement,as when we sayThe college draft was introduced in an effort to make the teams in the National Football League as equal as possible, orThe candidates for the job should all be given equal consideration. In all such cases,equality is naturally a gradient notionand so is amenable to modification in degree.This much is evident from the existence of the wordunequal. The prefixun- attaches only to gradient adjectives: we sayunmanly but not unmale; and the worduneven can be applied to a surface (whose evenness may be a matter of degree) but not to a number (whose evenness is an either-or affair). ·The adverbequally is generally regarded as redundant when used in combination with as, and the following examples employingequally as were termed unacceptable by 63 percent of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey: 单词equal 一向被认为是一个很绝对的词语—— 两个数量要么相同要么不同——这样就不能有程度上的差别。所以，如果有人说在各部门间对资源更公平的分配 ，那么就不合逻辑了。 但是这种用法在早先的用法调查中被百分之七十一用法使用小组的人接受。而且，对这种用法的反对体现出了一种很流行但却值得怀疑的假设，那就是我们从数学和逻辑中得出适用于日常语言准确性的实例，而这种假设也可从我们对一些词，如unique，parallel 和 center 传统的语法讨论中体现出来。 根据这个解释，equal “准确”或“书面”的意思则是由在算术表达式，如5+2=7中所运用的相同的符号而表达清楚的； 而该词在日常语言中的用法，虽然被允许，但却代表了其含意“松散”或“不严谨”的引申。但是实际上用数学概念上的相等来运用equal 这个词描述世上各种事物之间的关系是一个很差劲的例子。 当该词应用于生活中的事物时，相等的观念往往与暗含的容忍相关联。当有人说两块木板同样长 时， 我们会认为由于上下文的关系，相等可以被看作大约近似；如果我们不这样想，那么当我们谈到物体的尺寸时，就要经常使用nearly equal 。 另外，我们常常会预测和数量无关的事物的相同性，比如我们会说，引入大学的要求是为了使全国足球联合会中的各队尽可能平等 ， 或者应给予该项工作的应征者同等的考虑 。 在所有这些例子中，相等是个可变化的概念，所以可在程度有所不同。Unequal 这个词的存在就是很好的证明。 un- 这个前缀只附加于有程序变化的形容词， 我们说unmanly 但不说 unmale ； 而uneven 这个词只能用于某物的表面（其平坦可有程度上的差别）， 而不能用于数目（数目只能说相等或不相等）。Equally 这一副词在与 as 连用时通常被认为是多余的， 在早先的用法调查中，以下这些使用equally as 的句子遭到百分之六十三使用小组的人反对： 〔sandhi〕Modification of the sound of a morpheme in certain phonetic contexts, as the difference between the pronunciation ofdon't in don't you and in don't we. 词素变音：据上下文产生的一个词素发音变异，如don't 在 don't you 和 don't we 中发音的差异 〔indirect〕Reporting the exact or approximate words of another with such changes as are necessary to bring the original statement into grammatical conformity with the sentence in which it is included:非直接引用的：为了上下文语法的正确，在引用别人的原话时对原话的词语作必要的更改：〔bring〕 When the relevant point of focus is not the place of speaking itself,the difference obviously depends on the context.We can say eitherThe labor leaders brought or took their requests to the mayor's office, depending on whether we want to describe things from the point of view of the labor leaders or the mayor.Perhaps for this reason, the distinction betweenbring and take has been blurred in some areas; a parent may say of a child, for example, 当注意的相关点不再指说话人所在处时，显然是靠上下文来判断。我们可以说The labor leaders brought 或 took their requests to the mayor's office（工会领导带着他们的要求去市长办公室）， 这取决于我们叙述事情是从工会领导的角度还是从市长的角度出发。也许由于这个原因，bring 和 take 之间的区别在一些地区不是很明显； 例如，家长可以说他的孩子： 〔gay〕The wordgay is now standard in its use to refer to the American homosexual community and its members;in this use it is generally lowercased.Gay is distinguished from homosexual in emphasizing the cultural and social aspects of homosexuality.Many writers reservegay for male homosexuals, but the word is also used to refer to homosexuals of both sexes;when the intended meaning is not clear in the context,the phrasegay and lesbian should be used. Like the other names of social groups that are derived from adjectives (e.g.,Black ), gay may be regarded as offensive when used as a noun to refer to particular individuals, as inThere were two gays on the panel; here a phrase such asgay people should be used instead. But there is no objection to the use of the noun in the pluralto refer to the general gay community,as inGays have united in opposition to the policy. See Usage Note at homosexual 单词gay 其用法已被普遍接受， 指的是美国的同性恋团体及其成员；在这种用法中，它一般小写。Gay 区别于 homosexual， 前者强调同性恋者的文化和社会方面。许多作家把gay 限定于男性同性恋者， 但这个单词也可用于指两种性别的同性恋者，当上下文的言外之意不太明确时，词组同性恋男性和同性恋女性 可以被使用。 就象其他从形容词派生来的社会群体名词一样（如，黑人 ）， gay 如果当作为一个名词使用，指一些特殊的个体时，可能会被认为带有攻击性， 如在There were two gays on the panel； 在此处应该用词组gay people 来代替。 但是并没有人反对其名词的复数形式，指一般的同性恋团体，如句子同性恋者们已经团结起来对抗政策 参见 homosexual〔contemporary〕Whencontemporary is used in reference to something in the past, its meaning is not always clear.Contemporary critics of Shakespeare may mean critics in his time or critics in our time. When the context does not make the meaning clear,misunderstanding can be avoided by using phrases such ascritics in Shakespeare's time or modern critics. 当comtemporary 被用来指过去的事情时， 它的含义有时是很模糊的。Contemporary critics of Shakespeare 可以表示与莎士比亚同时代的评论家们或者我们当代的评论家们。 如果上下文不能说清楚意思，可以用诸如critics in Shakespeare's time（莎士比亚那个时代的评价家们） 或 modern critics（当代评论家们） 之类的短语以避免产生误解 〔shall〕The use ofwill in the first person and of shall in the second and third may express determination, promise, obligation, or permission, depending on the context.ThusI will leave tomorrow indicates that the speaker is determined to leave; 单词will 在第一人称及 shall 在用于第二、三人称时， 根据上下文可能表达的决定、承诺、义务或允许这样。这样我明天要走 这句话表明说话者决定离开； 〔parenthesis〕A qualifying or amplifying word, phrase, or sentence inserted within written matter in such a way as to be independent of the surrounding grammatical structure.插入成份，插入词：在书写中插入的与上下文的语法结构没有关系的限定或补充的词、短语或句子〔so〕So is frequently used in informal speech to string together the elements of a narrative. This practice should not be carried over into formal writing,where the absence of contextual information generally requires that connections be made more explicit. ·Critics have sometimes objected to the use ofso as an intensive meaning "to a great degree or extent,” as inWe were so relieved to learn that the deadline had been extended. This usage is most common in informal contexts,perhaps because unlike the neutralvery, it presumes that the listener or reader will be sympathetic with the speaker's evaluation of the situation. (Thus one would be more apt to sayIt was so unfair of them not to invite you than to sayIt was so fortunate that I didn't have to put up with your company. ) For just this reason,the construction may occasionally be used to good effect in more formal contexts to invite the reader to take the point of view of the speaker or subject: 在非正式的讲话中，so 经常被用来连接叙述的成分。 但是这种做法不能带入正式的写作当中，上下文信息的缺乏通常要求连接明确。批评家们有些时候对so 被用来表示强调的意思“很大程度”提出反对， 如在我们得知最后期限已被推迟的消息时感到了极大的放松 中。 这种用法在非正式的文章中最常用，也许是因为和中性的very 不同， 它假定听众或读者能对讲话者对形势的评价引起共鸣。（因此人们通常会说他们没有邀请你是多么不公平 ， 而不是说多幸运啊，我不必再成为你的朋友 )。 正因为这个原因，这个结构有时在正式的文章中也有很好的作用，使读者接受说话人或主题的观点： 〔compare〕Butto is frequently used in this context and is not incorrect. 但to 常用于此上下文，也是正确的 |
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