| 单词 | 主语 |
| 释义 | 〔that〕Used to introduce an anticipated subordinate clause following the expletiveit occurring as subject of the verb: 引导跟随词it 作为动词主语的强调从句： 〔able〕 It should be avoided when such an ascription is unwarranted, as with passive constructions involving forms of the verbbe; thus it is inconsistent to sayThe problem was able to be solved through the method she had learned about in business school, since this sentence ascribes no capacity or ability to the problem itself.In such cases,can or could can usually be substituted: The problem could be solved . . . By contrast, passives withget ascribe a more active role to their subjects, and here theable to construction can be used: 当这种起因并非必要时，则被动态中用到动词be应避免使用这词组， 因此这问题可用她在商业学校中学到的方法来解决 的说法是矛盾的， 其原因是这个句子并未将某种能力归因于问题本身。在这种情况下，通常可使用can 或 could 来替代： 这问题可以被解决… 。相反，带get 的被动态表示一个更为能动的主语， 这样able to 结构就可以用为： 〔that〕Used to introduce a noun clause that is usually the subject or object of a verb or a predicate nominative:用以导出名词从句：引导作为动词或谓语主格的主语或宾语的名词性从句：〔we〕Used by the speaker or writer to indicate the speaker or writer along with another or others as the subject:我们：被说话者或写作者用于指他和另一个人或其他人一起作为主语：〔hopefully〕And though this use ofhopefully may have been a vogue word when it first gained currency 30 years ago, it has long since lost any taint of jargon or pretentiousness for the general reader.The well-attested acceptance of the usage reflects an implicit popular recognition of its usefulness;there is no precise substitute.Someone who saysHopefully, the treaty will be ratified makes a hopeful prediction about the fate of the treaty,whereas someone who saysI hope (or We hope or It is hoped ) the treaty will be ratified expresses a bald statement about what is desired. Only the latter could be continued with a clause such asbut it isn't likely. · It might have been expected, then, that the initial flurry of objections tohopefully would have subsided once the usage became well established. Instead, increased currency of the usage appears only to have made the critics more adamant.In the 1969 Usage Panel survey the usage was acceptable to 44 percent of the Panel;in the most recent survey it was acceptable to only 27 percent.(By contrast, 60 percent accepted the analogous use ofmercifully in the sentence Mercifully, the game ended before the opponents could add another touchdown to the lopsided score. ) Yet the Panel has not shown any signs of becoming generally more conservative:in the very same survey panelists were disposed to accept once-vilified usagessuch as the employment ofcontact and host as verbs. · It seems that this use ofhopefully has been made a litmus test, which distinguishes writers who take an active interest in questions of grammar or usage from the great mass of people who keep their own linguistic counsel.No one can be blamed who useshopefully in blithe ignorance of the critics' disdain for it, since the rule could not be derived from any general concern for clarity or precision.But writers who are aware of the critical controversy face a more delicate decision.Some will simply flout the rule,seeing no reason that they should be deprived of a useful construction.Others may choose to avoid the usage,whether they are motivated by discretion or civility. ·Like other sentence adverbs such asbluntly and happily, hopefully may occasionally be ambiguous. In the sentenceHopefully, the company has launched a new venture, the word hopefully might be construed as describing the point of view of either the speaker or the subject. Such ambiguities can be resolved either by repositioning the adverb (as inThe company has launched the new venture hopefully ) or by choosing a paraphrase ( One may hope that the company has launched the new venture ). 尽管hopefully 的这一用法在30年前首次通用的时候曾是个时兴词， 但对于广大读者来说它早已失去了俚语或矫饰的色彩。屡经证实的对这一用法的接受反映了对其实用性的普遍默认；而且并不存在其他精确的代用词。有人如果说但愿条约能被批准 ， 便是对条约的命运作了充满希望的预测，反之如果有人说我希望 （或 我们希望 或 希望 ) 条约将会被批准 则表达了对其期望之物的大胆声明。 只有后者可以接从句象但这不大可能 。 也许我们本可以期待当这一用法已变得根深蒂固之后， 对hopefully 的一片反对声可稍事平息。 然而，这一用法的流行似乎反而使批评家们更为坚定。在1969年用法调查使用小组的调查中44%的成员接受这一用法；在最近一次的调查中却只有27%的成员接受。（相比之下，60%的人接受mercifully 在句子 幸好，在对手能够给这一边倒的比分再加上一分之前，比赛就结束了 中的类似用法） 但是并没有任何迹象表明调查小组成员正在普遍变得更保守：在同一次调查中小组成员们倾向于接受被一度废除的某些用法，如把contact 和 host 用作动词看来。 似乎hopefully 的用法已经成了一块试金石， 它把对语法和用法怀有浓厚兴趣的作家和保留着他们自己的语言学顾问的广大民众区分开来。那些全然忽视批评家们的蔑视使用hopefully 的人不该受到指责， 因为规则并不来源于任何对清晰和精确的关注。但是意识到了批评界争议的作者们面对着一个更为微妙的决定。有些人干脆违反规则，他们认为没有理由要失去这么一个实用的结构。另外一些人则选择避免这一用法，无论其动机是出于谨慎还是出于礼貌。象许多其它句中副词如bluntly 和 happily一样，hopefully 经常出现歧义。 在下句 Hopefully, the company has launched a new venture 中， hopefully 一词可以解释为记述说话者的观点或者句中主语的观点。 这种歧义可以通过调换副词位置（如公司已经满怀希望地到办了一个新企业 )或选择另一种说法( 有人希望这个公司已经创办了一个新企业 )来消除 〔hardly〕The use ofhardly with a negative is avoided in Standard English. Some critics have been puzzled that adverbs such ashardly, rarely, and scarcely should be treated as negatives in the traditional strictures against double negation, which tars sentences likeI couldn't hardly see him with the same brush as I didn't get none. After all, they argue, the sentenceMary hardly laughed entails that Mary did laugh, not that she didn't,and therefore does not express a negative proposition.Buthardly and scarcely occur with other negative expressions in a number of ways. For one thing, they combine with items such asany and at all, which are characteristically associated with negative contexts: we sayI hardly saw him at all or I never saw him at all but notI occasionally saw him at all; we sayI hardly had any time or I didn't have any time but notI had any time, and so on. Like other negative adverbs,hardly triggers inversion of the subject and auxiliary when it begins a sentence. Thus we sayHardly had I arrived when she left, on the pattern of Never have I read such a book or At no time has he condemned the movement. Such inversion is not used with other adverbs:we would not sayOccasionally has he addressed this question or To a slight degree have they changed their position. The fact is that adverbs such ashardly are semantically negative in that they qualify a state or an event relative to the limiting case of nonoccurrence.Thus the meaning ofhardly is, roughly, "almost not at all"; the meaning ofrarely is "practically never"; and so forth. These adverbs are felt to have a negative component in their meaning,and it should not be surprising that grammarians have reacted to combinations ofhardly with negatives in the same way that they have reacted to combinations of pairs of negatives such as not and none. See Usage Note at double negative ,rarely ,scarcely Hardly 和一个否定词在一起的用法在标准英语中应尽量避免， 一些批评学家一直怀疑象hardly，rarely 和 scarcely 这样的副词在传统的双重否定的句中应被视为否定词， 这样的词使句子象I couldn't hardly see him 和 I didn't get none 一样被弄糟了， 他们争论说，毕竟句子Mary hardly laughed 的意思是玛丽的确笑了， 而不是她没笑，所以不表示否定的建议。但是hardly 和 scarcely 和其他的否定表示一起在许多方面出现， 举例说，他们和象any 和 at all 这样独特的和否定上下文联系的条目组合在一起， 我们说I hardly saw him at all 或 I never saw him at all , 但并不是I occasionally saw him at all； 我们说I hardly had any time 或 I didn't have any time 但不是I had any time 等。 象其它否定副词，hardly 在句子开头时引起主语和助动词的倒装， 于是我们说Hardly had I arrived when she left， 和 Never have I read such a book 或 At no time has he condemned the movement. 等同样的句型。 别的副词并不用这样的倒装：我们不能说Occasionally has he addressed this question 或 To a slight degree have they changed their position 。 事实是象hardly 这样的副词语义上是否定的， 他们限定修饰了与不发生有关的状态或事件。于是hardly 的意思大概是“几乎根本不”； rarely 的意思大概是“实际上没有”；等等。 这些副词在他们的意思里留有否定的成分，语法学家们对hardly 和否定词组合的反应和对一对否定词如 not 和 none组合的反应一样是不足为奇的 参见 double negative,rarely,scarcely〔noun〕A word that is used to name a person, place, thing, quality, or action and can function as the subject or object of a verb, the object of a preposition, or an appositive.名词：表示名称，如人、地、事、性质或行为的词，可作为词的主语或动词的宾语，介词的宾语或同位语〔get〕The use ofget in the passive, as inWe got sunburned at the beach, is generally avoided in formal writing.In less formal contexts, however,the construction does provide a useful distinction in attributing a more active role to its subject than would the corresponding passive withbe. Thus if Jones has committed a flagrant breach of law in order to test a particular statute,the situation might best be described by the sentenceJones got arrested by the police; whereas if Jones did nothing to provoke the police action,the sentenceJones was arrested by the police would be preferred. 在被动语态使用get ， 如我们在海滩上晒黑了 ， 渐渐在正式写作中避免。但在非正式上下文中，这个结构为使其比相应被动形式be 给予其主语更为主动的角色提供了极为有用的区别。 因此，如果琼斯为了验证特殊法律条文而严重违犯了某法律，最好用以下句子来描绘Jones got arrested by the police， 但如果琼斯没有反抗警察的行为，句子Jones was arrested by the police 比较合宜 〔together〕Together with, like in addition to, is often employed following the subject of a sentence or clause to introduce an addition.The addition, however, does not alter the number of the verb,which is governed by the subject: Togther with 象 in addition to 一样， 使用时经常跟在一个句子或从句后面以引入一个附加成份。但是这个附加成分不改变动词的单复数，动词的单复数还是由主语决定： 〔either〕But this usage is widely regarded as incorrect;in an earlier survey it was rejected by 92 percent of the Usage Panel. ·When all the elements in aneither . . . or construction (or a neither . . . nor construction) used as the subject of a sentence are singular, the verb is singular: 但是这种用法通常被认为是不正确的，在以前的调查中它被用法使用小组百分之九十二的成员所否定。当作为句中主语的either…or 结构（或 neither…nor 结构）中的所有成分都是单数的时候， 动词也应用单数： 〔plus〕Philosophers of mathematics have long debated the proper analysis of the relation denoted by the + sign in equations such as 2 + 2 = 4,so it is not surprising that the syntactic status of its natural language equivalent, the wordplus, should be similarly problematic— though to be sure, the questions are primarily of theoretical interest.When mathematical equations are pronounced as English sentences,the verb is usually in the singular:Two plus two is (or equals ) four. By the same token,subjects containing two noun phrases joined byplus are usually construed as singular: 数学哲学家们已就诸如2+2=4这类等式中的“+”号所表示的关系的正确分析进行了长期的辩论，所以这一符号的自然语言对应物——即单词plus 的语法地位应同样不确定也就不足为奇了—— 纵然可以确定，这些问题也主要是理论上的兴趣。当数学等式被转化为英语句子，动词通常用单数形式：Two plus two is（或 equals ） four。 通过同样的记号，包含两个由plus 联结的名词短语的主语通常被视为单数： 〔able〕The constructionable to ascribes to its subject the ability to accomplish the action expressed in its complement: 词组able to 表示其主语具备完成补充成分里所提到的行为的能力： 〔doubt〕Doubt and doubtful may be followed by clauses introduced by that, whether, or if. The choice among these three is partly guided by the intended meaning of the sentencebut is not cast in stone. Whether normally introduces an indirect questionand is therefore the traditional choice when the subject is in a state of genuine uncertainty about alternative possibilities: Doubt 和 doubtful 后面可以跟由 that，whether， 或 if 引导的从句。 三者之间选哪一个部分地由句子要表达的意义决定的，但其用法并不是固定不变的。 Whether 一般引导一个间接问句，所以当主语所代表的人确实不知如何选择判断时，传统上就用该词： 〔nor〕The traditional rule requires thatnor be used following neither in expressions in which the negation is carried over to the second element:He is neither able nor (not or ) willing to go. Noris likewise required when a negation is carried over into the second of two independent clauses, in which caseit also triggers inversion of the subject and the auxiliary verb in the second clause: 传统规则要求nor 用于 neither 后面， 在这种表达中，否定放在第二个部分：他既不能也 （不用 or ) 不愿走。 Nor在当两个独立句子中的第二个也被否时被用， 在这种用法中，它也引起第二个句子主语和助动词的转变： 〔it〕Used as an anticipatory subject or object:代主语或宾语：作为先行主语或先行宾语：〔inversion〕A change in normal word order, such as the placement of a verb before its subject.倒装：正常词序的变化，例如，倒装动词置于主语之前〔each〕An exception is made wheneach follows the verb with a first-person plural subject: one may say eitherWe boys have each our own room or We boys have each his own room, though the latter form is somewhat stilted in modern use. ·The expressioneach and every is likewise followed by a singular verb and singular pronoun in formal style: 一个例外是当each 前面动词带有第一人称复数形式的主语时： 既可以说我们男孩子们每人都有各自的一间房 或者也可以说 我们男孩子们每人都有他各自房间 ， 虽然后一形式在现代用法中有些过时。这种表达each and every ， 在正式文体中的后面也同样地使用单数动词和单数的代词： 〔it〕Used as the subject of an impersonal verb:表示主语：用作非人称代词的主语：〔sorites〕A form of argument in which a series of incomplete syllogisms is so arranged that the predicate of each premise forms the subject of the next until the subject of the first is joined with the predicate of the last in the conclusion.复合三段论：连锁推理、连锁诡辩论形式，其中一系列不完整的演绎推理是按如下方法安排的：每一前提的谓语项形成下一前提的主语，直到第一个前提的主语与最后结论的前提的谓语项连结起来为止〔there〕Nonetheless, it is common in speech for the contractionthere's to be used when technically a plural verb is called for, as inThere's a couple of good reasons for going. There is also a tendency to use a singular verb when the phrase with which the verb must agree is a conjunction in which the subject closest to the verb is singular: 然而，当技术上要求用复数动词时，口语中常用缩写there's ， 如在有两个要去的好理由 中。 当作为连接词的短语中最接近动词的主语为单数时，且短语必须与动词保持一致，也有用单数动词的趋势： 〔it〕Used as an anticipatory subject to emphasize a term that is not itself a subject:强调主语：作为先行主语来强调，但它本身并不是主语：〔sentence〕A grammatical unit that is syntactically independent and has a subject that is expressed or, as in imperative sentences, understood and a predicate that contains at least one finite verb.句子：句法上独立的语法单位，它有一个需要表达、或理解的主语和一个包含至少一个限定动词的谓语，如在祈使句中〔each〕The traditional rule holds thatwhen the subject of a sentence begins witheach, it is grammatically singular,and the verb and following pronouns must be singular as well: 传统规则规定，当句子的主语以each 开始时， 语法上讲是单数形式，所以动词及相应的代词也必须使用单数形式： 〔liable〕Liable, apt, and likely are often used interchangeably in constructions with following infinitives, as inJohn is liable to lose, John is apt to lose, and John is likely to lose. The three words are distinct in meaning.A widely repeated rule holdsthatliable should only be used if the subject would be adversely affected by the outcome expressed by the infinitive. The rule therefore permitsJohn is liable to fall out of his chair if he doesn't sit up straight but notThe chair is liable to be slippery, though constructions of the latter type have long been common in reputable writing.Apt usually suggests that the subject has a natural tendency enhancing the probability of an outcome, and that the speaker is in some way apprehensive about the outcome.Thusapt is more naturally used in a sentence like The fuel pump is apt to give out at any minute than in Even the clearest instructions are apt to be misinterpreted by those idiots (since the instructions are not at fault)or inThe fuel pump is apt to give you no problems for the life of the car (since there is no reason that the speaker should regard such an outcome as unfortunate).Likely is more general than either liable or apt. It ascribes no particular property to the subject that enhances the probability of the outcome:whileJohn is apt to lose the election may suggest that the loss will result from something John does or fails to do, John is likely to lose the election does not. Nor does it suggest anything about the desirability of the outcome from the point of view of either the speaker or the subject.A football coach who saysWe are apt to win may be suspected of sarcasm,and one who saysWe are liable to win may be suspected of having bet on the opposition;onlyWe are likely to win is consistent with the expression of an unambivalent expectation of victory. See Usage Note at likely Liable，apt 和 likely 在如下不定式结构中经常可以互换， 例如 John is liable to lose，John is apt to lose 和 John is likely to lose 。 这三个词的意思是有区别的。一条公认的语法规则认为，只有当主语受不定式所表示的动作或结果的不利影响时，才使用liable 。 因此这条规则允许说如果约翰不坐直身子的话，他很容易从椅子上掉下来的 ， 但不允许说椅子可能很滑 ， 尽管在规范的写作中，后一种类型的句型已经很普遍了。Apt 通常表示主语有增加某种结果的可能性的自然倾向， 而且说话者对此结果多少有些忧虑。因此，apt 用在句子 燃料泵可能随时停止运转 中，比用在 即使是最明了的指令也有可能被那些白痴误解 中更自然 （因为错的不是指令），也比用在燃料可能不会对你的车的使用寿命带来什么问题 中更合适 （因为说话者没有理由认为这样一个结果很不幸）。Likely 比 liable 或 apt 更具概括性。 它并不说明增加了一个结果的可能性的主语是否具有何特性：句子约翰在选举中可能会失败 可能暗示失败归因于约翰所做的或没能做的某件事， 而句子约翰在选举中有可能失败 则没有这种暗示。 另外，它也没有关于说话者或主语是否喜欢某一结果的暗示。如果一位足球教练说We are apt to win ， 他可能带有讽刺意味，但如果他说We are liable to win ， 他的意思是他认为他们可能会输；只有说We are likely to win ，才明确表示有希望获胜 参见 likely〔need〕When used as an auxiliary verb,need does not agree with its subject, does not taketo before the verb following it, and does not combine withdo : 当用作助动词时，need 不用和主语一致， 不用把to 放在其后动词的前面， 并且不用和do 连用： 〔dare〕When used as a main verb,dare does agree with its subject ( 当用作实义动词时，dare 一定要和主语一致( 〔ergative〕Of or relating to a language, such as Georgian, in which the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb is expressed by one grammatical case, and the subject of a transitive verb is expressed by another.动者格语言的：用一个语法格表示不及物动词主语和及物动词宾语，用另一个语法格表示及物动词主语的语言（如格鲁吉亚语）的，或与其相关的〔than〕Since the 18th centurygrammarians have insisted thatthan should be regarded as a conjunction in all its uses, so that a sentence such asBill is taller than Tom should be construed as an elliptical version of the sentence Bill is taller than Tom is. According to this view,the case of a pronoun followingthan is determined by whether the pronoun serves as the subject or object of the verb that is "understood.” Thus, the standard rule requiresPat is taller than I (not me ) on the assumption that this sentence is elliptical forPat is taller than I am but allowsThe news surprised Pat more than me, since this sentence is taken as elliptical forThe news surprised Pat more than it surprised me. However,than is quite commonly treated as a preposition when followed by an isolated noun phrase, and as such occurs with a pronoun in the objective case:John is taller than me. Though this usage is still widely regarded as incorrect,it is predominant in speechand has reputable literary precedent.It is also consistent with the fact thatthan is clearly treated as a preposition in the than whom construction, as ina poet than whom (not than who ) no one has a dearer place in the hearts of his countrymen. Still, the writer who risks a sentence such asMary is taller than him in formal writing must be prepared to defend the usage against objections of critics who are unlikely to be dissuaded from their conviction that the usage is incorrect. · Comparatives usingas . . . as can be analyzed in a parallel way to those using than. Traditional grammarians insist thatI am not as tall as he is the only correct form, and though both literary precedent and syntactic arguments can be marshaled in support of the analysis of the secondas as a preposition (which would license I am not as tall as him ), one should treat this use ofas as a conjunction in formal writing. See Usage Note at as 1自18世纪以来，语法学家坚持以为than 在其所有用法中均应被看作连词， 因此，在诸如Bill is taller than Tom 的句子中应解释为句子 Bill is taller than Tom is 的省略说法。 根据这一观点，than 后跟随代词的情况取决于该代词作为所“理解”的动词的主语还是谓语。 这样，标准规则要求Pat is taller than I （而不是 me )， 考虑到这个句子是Pat is taller than I am 的省略， 但允许The news surprised Pat more than me ， 因为这个句子被认当是The news surprised Pat more than it surprised me 的省略。 然而，当than 跟随一个独立名词短语时常被看作是介词， 如代词用于宾语的情况：John is taller than me 。 尽管这种用法仍然被广泛认为是错误的，但它仍在口语中占主要地位，并且有著名的文学先例。它也符合than 在 than whom 结构中显然被认为是介词的事实， 就象在a poet than whom （而不是 than who ) no one has a dearer place in the hearts of his countrymen 。 然而，冒险在正式写作中应用诸如Mary is taller than him 的作者必须准备针对那些不可能被劝服放弃坚信这种用法是错误的批评家们的反对意见而对此种用法进行辩护。 用比较级as…as 可以用与 than 相同的方式进行分析。 传统的语法学家坚持认为I am not as tall as he 是唯一正确的形式， 尽管文学先例和语法规则都能支持第二个as 作为介词（即允许 I am not as tall as him )的分析， 我们仍应该把这个as 作为正式写作中的连词 参见 as1〔permit〕In the sense "to allow for, be consistent with,”permit is often accompanied by of when its subject is inanimate: 在“允许，与保持一致”这个意义上，当主语是无生命的事物时，permit 后面常带有 of ： 〔who〕The traditional rules that determine the use ofwho and whom are relatively simple: who is used for a grammatical subject, where a nominative pronoun such as I or he would be appropriate, andwhom is used elsewhere. Thus, we writeThe actor who played Hamlet was there, sincewho stands for the subject of played Hamlet; andWho do you think is the best candidate? where who stands for the subject of is the best candidate. But we writeTo whom did you give the letter? sincewhom is the object of the preposition to; andThe man whom the papers criticized did not show up, sincewhom is the object of the verb criticized. ? Considerable effort and attention are required to apply the rules correctly in complicated sentences.To produce correctly a sentence such asI met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite, we must anticipate when we writewhom that it will function as the object of the verb extradite, several clauses distant from it.It is thus not surprising that writers from Shakespeare onward should often have interchangedwho and whom. And though the distinction shows no signs of disappearing in formal style,strict adherence to the rules in informal discourse might be taken as evidence that the speaker or writer is paying undue attention to the form of what is said, possibly at the expense of its substance.In speech and informal writingwho tends to predominate over whom; a sentence such asWho did John say he was going to support? will be regarded as quite natural, if strictly incorrect. By contrast, the use ofwhom where who would be required, as inWhom shall I say is calling? may be thought to betray a certain linguistic insecurity. ? When the relative pronoun stands for the object of a preposition that ends a sentence,whom is technically the correct form: the strict grammarian will insist onWhom (not who ) did you give it to? But grammarians since Noah Webster have argued that the excessive formality ofwhom in these cases is at odds with the relative informality associated with the practice of placing the preposition in final position and that the use of who in these cases should be regarded as entirely acceptable. ? The relative pronounwho may be used in restrictive relative clauses, in which case it is not preceded by a comma, or in nonrestrictive clauses, in which case a comma is required.Thus, we may say eitherThe scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized, where the clausewho discovers a cure for cancer indicates which scientist will be immortalized, orThe mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known, where the clausewho solved the four-color theorem adds information about a person already identified by the phrase the mathematician over there. ? Some grammarians have argued that onlywho and not that should be used to introduce a restrictive relative clause that identifies a person. This restriction has no basis either in logic or in the usage of the best writers;it is entirely acceptable to write eitherthe man that wanted to talk to you or the man who wanted to talk to you. ? The grammatical rules governing the use ofwho and whom apply equally to whoever and whomever. See Usage Note at else ,that ,whose 确定用法的传统规则who 和 whom 相对简单： who 语法上用作主语，同 I 或 he 等主格代词的位置相同， 而whom 用于别处。 这样，我们写The actor who played Hamlet was there （演哈姆雷特的演员在那边）， 因此who 代表的是 played Hamlet 的主语。 在句子Who do you think is the best candidate? （你认为谁是最好的候选人?）中 who 代表 is the best candidate 的主语。 但是我们说To whom did you give the letter? （你把信给谁了?）， 因为whom 是介词 to 的宾语； 在句子The man whom the papers criticized did not show up, （报纸上批评的那个人没有来）， 因为whom 是动词 criticized 的宾语 。在复杂的句子里，正确应用这些规则需要相当的努力和注意。正确地造出如I met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite （我遇到了政府曾努力让法国引渡的那个人）这样的句子， 在写whom 之前我们必须预知它将作动词 extradite 的宾语， 尽管两个词离得很远。这也就难怪自莎士比亚以来的作家经常把who 和 whom 交换使用了。 尽管在正式文体中两者区别仍然存在，但如果在非正式的交谈中严格地遵守这些规则会被认为说话者或作者可能不顾内容而过分注视说话的形式。在口语和非正式书面语中，who 趋向于代替 whom; 人们会认为象Who did John say he was going to support? （约翰说他将支持谁?）这样句子很自然，尽管严格来说它是不正确的。 相反，在应该用who 的地方用 whom 则显出一种语言上的不稳定， 如Whom shall I say is calling? （我说是谁在打电话?）。 当关系代词替代句尾的介词宾语时，whom 在理论上是正确的形势： 严格的语法坚持Whom （而不是 who ) did you give it to?（你把它给谁了？） 但从诺·韦伯斯特以来的语法学家认为whom 在这种情况下过分正式，而把介词放在句尾相对来说又不正式，这就有了矛盾，所以在这种情况下用 who 完全可以接受。 关系代词who 可以用在限定关系从句中，前面不要加逗号， 也可用在非限定关系从句中，则需要加逗号。所以我们既可以说The scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized （发现治愈癌症的方法的科学家将会因此而不朽）， 在此处从句who discovers a cure for cancer 指这样的科学家将会不朽， 也可以说The mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known （在那边的数学家非常出名，他解决了四色定理）， 从句who solved the four-color theorem 给已经由短语 the mathematician over there 确定了的人增加了一些有关他的信息。 有些语法学家认为只有who 而不是 that 可以连接表示人的限定性关系从句。 这种限制在逻辑上没有根据，在最优秀作家的用法中也未有根据；无论说the man that wanted to talk to you （想要跟你说话的那个人）或 the man who wanted to talk to you 都是完全可以接受的。 有关who 和 whom 的语法规则同样适用于 whoever 和 whomever 参见 else,that,whose〔that〕The standard rule isthatthat should be used only to introduce a restrictive (or "defining") relative clause, which serves to identify the entity being talked about;in this useit should never be preceded by a comma.Thus, we sayThe house that Jack built has been torn down, where the clausethat Jack built tells which house was torn down, orI am looking for a book that is easy to read, wherethat is easy to read tells what kind of book is desired. Onlywhich is to be used with nonrestrictive (or "nondefining") clauses, which give additional information about an entity that has already been identified in the context;in this use,which is always preceded by a comma. Thus, we sayThe students in Chemistry 10 have been complaining about the textbook, which (not that ) is hard to follow. The clausewhich is hard to follow does not indicate which text is being complained about; even if it were omitted,we would know that the phrasethe textbook refers to the text in Chemistry 10. The use ofthat in nonrestrictive clauses like this, though once common in writing and still frequent in speech,is best avoided in formal style. ·Some grammarians have argued that symmetry requires thatwhich should be used only in nonrestrictive clauses, asthat is to be used only in restrictive clauses. Thus, they suggest that we should avoid sentences such asI need a book which will tell me all about city gardening, where the clausewhich will tell me all about city gardening indicates which sort of book is needed. Such use ofwhich is useful where two or more relative clauses are joined by and or or, as inIt is a philosophy in which the common man may find solace and which many have found reason to praise. Which is also preferred to introduce a restrictive relative clausewhen the preceding phrase itself contains athat, as inI can only give you that which I don't need (not that that I don't need ) or We want to assign only that book which will be most helpful (preferred tothat book that will be most helpful ). · That may be omitted in a relative clause when the subject of the clause is different from the referent of the phrase preceding the clause. Thus, we may say eitherthe book that I was reading or the book I was reading, where the subject of the clause (I ) is not the referent of the phrase the book. Omission ofthat in these cases has sometimes been described as incorrect, but the practice is extremely common and has ample precedent in reputable writing. ·There have also been occasional objections to the omission ofthat in its use to introduce a subordinate clause, as inI think we should try again. But this usage is entirely idiomatic and is in fact favored with some of the verb phrases that can introduce such clauses:thus, one would more normally write 标准规则中，that 应只被用于引导限定性（或“确定的”）关系从句， 这些从句用于明确正被谈论的实体；在这种情况下，前面决不能有逗号。因此，我们说杰克建的房子已经拆毁了 ， 在这里，从句杰克所建的 指明哪幢房子被拆毁了， 或者我正在找一本易读的书 ， 在这里，易读的 指明哪类书是需要的。 只有which 用于非限定性（或“不确定的”）从句中， 为已经在上下文中定义的实体提供附加信息；在此用法中，which 之前总有逗号。 因此，我们说化学10班的学生一直在抱怨这课本，实在 （不是 that ) 是太难懂了 。 从句which is hard to follow 并不指明哪一课本被抱怨； 即使它被省略，我们也知道the textbook 指化学10班的课本。 That 象这样用于非限定性从句中， 虽然在写作中曾很普遍而且在口语中依然频繁出现，但在正式文体中最好避免使用。一些语法学家认为对称性要求which 应只用于非限定性从句中， 就象that 只用于限定性从句中。 因此，他们建议我们应该避免诸如我需要一本关于城市园艺的书 这样的句子， 这里从句which will tell me all about city gardening 指明需要何种书。 当两个或多个关系从句被and 或 or 连接时， which 的这种用法很有用， 如是哲学使普通人找到慰藉并使许多人有理由去称颂。 Which 也用作引导限定性关系从句，在当前置短语中含有that 时， 如我只能给你我不需要的东西 （不是 that that I don't need )或 我们只想分发那本最用的书 （好于that book that will be most helpful )。 当从句主语与从句前短语所指不一致时，that 在关系从句中可以省略。 因此，我们可以说the book that I was reading 或者 the book I was reading 。 在这里，从句主语(I )和短语 the book 的主语不同。 在这些情况下，that 的省略有时被认为是错误的， 但是这在实际中极普遍而且在规范写作中有充分的先例。对于that 用于引导从句时被省略偶然持有异议， 如在我认为我们应该再试一次 中。 但这种用法完全符合语法而且实际上有一些引导这样从句的短语支持；因此，可以正常应用 〔active〕Indicating that the subject of the sentence is performing or causing the action expressed by the verb. Used of a verb form or voice.主动的，主动语态的：表示句子主语完成或导致动词表达的动作的。用于动词形态或语态〔invert〕invert the subject and predicate of a sentence.颠倒主句的主语和谓语〔plus〕This observation has suggested to some thatplus should be regarded as a preposition in these uses, on the model of expressions such astogether with or in addition to. But the phrases introduced byplus do not behave like prepositional phrases in other respects. They cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence, for example.We do not sayPlus the bad weather, the construction slowdown has made for a weak market (contrast the acceptable sentence beginning withTogether with the bad weather ). What is more,subjects containing two noun phrases connected byplus are usually singular even when the first noun phrase is plural: 对有些人来说上面这句话会暗示plus 在这类用法中应被视为一个介词， 如在together with 或 in addition to 这样的表达模式中。 但由plus 引导的短语在其它方面并不象介词性短语。 例如它们不能放到句首。我们并不说加之糟糕的天气，施工的减少会导致市场不景气 （试比较用Together with the bad weather 开头的可被接受的句子）。 此外，即使由plus 联结的两个名词性短语中第一个名词性短语为复数，主语通常仍为单数： 〔whatever〕Bothwhatever and what ever can be used in sentences such as Whatever (or What ever ) made her say that? Critics have occasionally objected to the one-word form,but it is supported by extensive precedent in reputable writing.The same is true of the formswhoever, whenever, wherever, and however when these expressions are used similarly. In adjectival uses only the one-word form is used:Take whatever (not what ever ) books you need. ? When a clause beginning withwhatever is the subject of a sentence, no comma should be used: Whatever you do is right. Otherwise, a comma may be used:Whatever you do, don't burn the toast. ? When the phrase preceding a restrictive clause is introduced bywhichever or whatever, that should not be used in formal writing. It is regarded as incorrect to writewhatever book that you want to look at; one should write insteadWhatever book you want to look at will be sent to your office or Whichever book costs less (not that costs less ) is fine with us. See Usage Note at however ,that whatever 和 what ever 这两个词都可用在例如 Whatever （或 What ever ) made her say that?（究竟是什么使得她说那样的话?） 这样的句子里。 批评家们经常反对单一词形，但有声望作品的大量先例却支持了单词形式。同样地，当whoever, whenever, wherever 及 however 这些表述被用于类似情况时，其情形也是如此。 用作定语时只用单词形式：Take whatever （不是 what ever ） books you need。（拿那些你要的书） ？ whatever 为句首的从句作句子主语时，不能用逗号： Whatever you do is right（无论你做什么都是对的）。 在其他情况可以用逗号：Whatever you do, don't burn the toast（不管你做什么，不要烤糊了吐司） ? 当先于一限定性从句的短语是由whichever 或 whatever引入时， that不能用在正式文体中。 这样的句子：whatever book that you want to look at（无论哪本你想看的书） 是被看作不正确的； 相反应该是Whatever book you want to look at will be sent to your office（你想看的任何一本书都将会送到你的办公室去） 或者 Whichever book costs less （不是 that costs less ) is fine with us（花费少一些的书比较适合我们） 参见 however,that〔ergative〕Of or relating to the grammatical case of the subject of a transitive verb in such a language.动者格的：动者格语言中及物动词主语的语法格的，或与其相关的〔dangling〕Of or being a modifier, especially a participle or participial phrase, that grammatically modifies the subject of its sentence but semantically modifies another element of the sentence or an unstated referent, asapproaching Dallas in the sentence Approaching Dallas, the skyline came into view. 垂悬：属于或是修饰词的，尤指分词或分词词组，其在语法上修饰句子的主语，但语意上是修饰句子的另一个部分或未说明的指示对象，例如在Approaching Dallas, the skyline came into view 这个句子里的 Approaching Dallas 〔absolutive〕Of or relating to the grammatical case in ergative languages of the subject of an intransitive verb and the object of a transitive verb.主动格的：不及物动词主语、及物动词宾语的主动格语言中的一种语法格的、或与其相关的〔dare〕Depending on its sense,the verbdare sometimes behaves like an auxiliary verb (such as can or may ) and sometimes like a main verb (such aswant or try ). When used as an auxiliary verb,dare does not agree with its subject: 从意义上来说，动词dare 有时相当于助动词（如 can能 或 may可能 )， 有时相当于实义动词 （如want想 或 try试着 )。 当用作助动词时，dare 不和主语一致： 〔what〕Whenwhat is the subject of a clause, it may be construed as singular or plural, depending on the sense.It is singular when taken as the equivalent ofthat which or the thing which, as inI see what seems to be a dead tree; and it is plural when it is taken as the equivalent ofthose which or the things which, as inHe sometimes makes what seem to be gestures of aloofness. ? When awhat clause is itself the subject of a sentence, it may be construed as singular or plural,but the conditions governing this choice are somewhat more complicated.In general, awhat clause will be taken as a plural when the clause contains an explicit indication of its own plurality. There are two principal cases.First, the clause is plural ifwhat is the subject of the clause and the verb of the clause is itself plural: What seem to be two dead trees are blocking the road. What most surprise me are the inflammatory remarks at the end of his article. If the verb in thewhat clause does not anticipate the plural sense of the predicate in this way, a singular verb is generally used in the main clause as well,though the plural is sometimes found:What truly commands respect is (sometimes are ) a large navy and a resolute foreign policy. Second, thewhat clause is treated as plural when its predicate contains a plural noun phrase that unambiguously establishes the plurality of the clause as a whole, as inWhat traditional grammarians called "predicates" are called "verb phrases" by modern linguists. What the Romans established as military outposts were later to become important trading centers. In the absence of explicit plural marking of either of these types in a subjectwhat clause, the clause is usually treated as singular for the purposes of agreement, regardless of the sense:What she held in her lap was four kittens. What the apparent diamonds turned out to be was paste. In some cases, however, a clause withwhat as the subject may be treated as singular or plural, depending on a subtle distinction of sense. InWhat excite him most are money and power, the implication is that money and power are distinct elements; inWhat excites him most is money and power, the implication is that money and power are taken as constituting a single entity.See Usage Note at which 当what 作为从句中的主语时， 它既可被当作单数也可以为复数，这取决于词义。当被看作是that which 或 the thing which 时它就是单数， 如在I see what seems to be a dead tree（我看到个象棵死树的物体）” 这句话中； 当它被用作those which 或 the things which 的对应词时它是复数， 如在He sometimes makes what seem to be gestures of aloofness（他有时做一些似乎很超然的手势） 中。 当what 从句本身是句子的主语时， 它可被当作单数或复数，但决定这种选择的条件略为复杂些。总体上说，what 从句的含有对其数性明确指示时，它就可以将当作复数。 这有两种最主要的情况：首先，如果what 是从句的主语而该从句的谓语动词本身是复数，从句就是复数： What seem to be two dead trees are blocking the road.（象两棵死树的物体挡着路）； What mostsurprise me are the inflammatory remarks at the end of his article.（最令我吃惊的是他文章结尾处的煽动性言词） 。 如果what 从句的谓语动词并不预示谓语是复数， 主句中通常也用单数动词，尽管有时也可以发现有复数：What truly commands respect is（有时 are ) a large navy and a resolute foreign policy（真正博得尊敬的是强大的海军和坚定的外交政策） ； 其次what 从句在其谓语含有复数名词短语，并且其明显可建立整个从句的复数性时是被当作复数的， 如在What traditional grammarians called "predicates" are called "verb phrases" by modern linguists.（那些传统语法家所称为“谓语”的则被现代语言学家称作“动词短语”） What the Romans established as military outpostswere later to become important trading centers.（那些罗马人设为军事前哨基地的地方后来成为了重要的贸易中心）。 当what 从句主语缺乏这两类明确表示复数性的标记时， 从句通常为了一致性而不顾及词义地被当作单数：What she held in her lap was four kittens.（她抱在膝盖上的是四只小猫）。 What the apparent diamonds turned out to bewas paste.（那些看上去象真的钻石结果却是人造宝石） 。 然而，在一些情况下，以what 作主语的从句可被当单数或复数，取决于语义上微妙的差异。 在What excite him most are money and power（最让他兴奋的是金钱和权力）， 这句话中暗含着金钱和权力是不同的成分； 在What excites him most is money and power（最让他兴奋的是金钱和权力）， 这句话中暗含着金钱和权力是作为构成一个单一整体的成分 参见 which |
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