| 单词 | 先例 |
| 释义 | 〔single〕"A solitary precedent . . . which has never been reexamined, cannot be conclusive" (Henry Clay).“唯一的先例…从来没有重新审视过，不能起决定性的作用” （亨利·克莱）。〔Zenger〕German-born colonial printer and journalist whose acquittal (1735) of libel charges in New York City established a legal precedent for freedom of the press.曾格，约翰·彼得：(1697-1746) 德裔殖民地印刷商和新闻工作者，在纽约城为新闻自由的合法开创了先例而被指控，后被宣告无罪(1735年）〔firstly〕There is ample reputable precedent for using bothfirst and firstly to begin an enumeration: 有许多规范的先例同时使用first 和 firstly 来开始列举： 〔authority〕A conclusive statement or decision that may be taken as a guide or precedent.判例：可作为指导或先例的结论性陈述或决定〔embalm〕"A precedent embalms a principle"(Benjamin Disraeli)“先例保持原则”(本杰明·迪斯累里)〔that〕The standard rule isthatthat should be used only to introduce a restrictive (or "defining") relative clause, which serves to identify the entity being talked about;in this useit should never be preceded by a comma.Thus, we sayThe house that Jack built has been torn down, where the clausethat Jack built tells which house was torn down, orI am looking for a book that is easy to read, wherethat is easy to read tells what kind of book is desired. Onlywhich is to be used with nonrestrictive (or "nondefining") clauses, which give additional information about an entity that has already been identified in the context;in this use,which is always preceded by a comma. Thus, we sayThe students in Chemistry 10 have been complaining about the textbook, which (not that ) is hard to follow. The clausewhich is hard to follow does not indicate which text is being complained about; even if it were omitted,we would know that the phrasethe textbook refers to the text in Chemistry 10. The use ofthat in nonrestrictive clauses like this, though once common in writing and still frequent in speech,is best avoided in formal style. ·Some grammarians have argued that symmetry requires thatwhich should be used only in nonrestrictive clauses, asthat is to be used only in restrictive clauses. Thus, they suggest that we should avoid sentences such asI need a book which will tell me all about city gardening, where the clausewhich will tell me all about city gardening indicates which sort of book is needed. Such use ofwhich is useful where two or more relative clauses are joined by and or or, as inIt is a philosophy in which the common man may find solace and which many have found reason to praise. Which is also preferred to introduce a restrictive relative clausewhen the preceding phrase itself contains athat, as inI can only give you that which I don't need (not that that I don't need ) or We want to assign only that book which will be most helpful (preferred tothat book that will be most helpful ). · That may be omitted in a relative clause when the subject of the clause is different from the referent of the phrase preceding the clause. Thus, we may say eitherthe book that I was reading or the book I was reading, where the subject of the clause (I ) is not the referent of the phrase the book. Omission ofthat in these cases has sometimes been described as incorrect, but the practice is extremely common and has ample precedent in reputable writing. ·There have also been occasional objections to the omission ofthat in its use to introduce a subordinate clause, as inI think we should try again. But this usage is entirely idiomatic and is in fact favored with some of the verb phrases that can introduce such clauses:thus, one would more normally write 标准规则中，that 应只被用于引导限定性（或“确定的”）关系从句， 这些从句用于明确正被谈论的实体；在这种情况下，前面决不能有逗号。因此，我们说杰克建的房子已经拆毁了 ， 在这里，从句杰克所建的 指明哪幢房子被拆毁了， 或者我正在找一本易读的书 ， 在这里，易读的 指明哪类书是需要的。 只有which 用于非限定性（或“不确定的”）从句中， 为已经在上下文中定义的实体提供附加信息；在此用法中，which 之前总有逗号。 因此，我们说化学10班的学生一直在抱怨这课本，实在 （不是 that ) 是太难懂了 。 从句which is hard to follow 并不指明哪一课本被抱怨； 即使它被省略，我们也知道the textbook 指化学10班的课本。 That 象这样用于非限定性从句中， 虽然在写作中曾很普遍而且在口语中依然频繁出现，但在正式文体中最好避免使用。一些语法学家认为对称性要求which 应只用于非限定性从句中， 就象that 只用于限定性从句中。 因此，他们建议我们应该避免诸如我需要一本关于城市园艺的书 这样的句子， 这里从句which will tell me all about city gardening 指明需要何种书。 当两个或多个关系从句被and 或 or 连接时， which 的这种用法很有用， 如是哲学使普通人找到慰藉并使许多人有理由去称颂。 Which 也用作引导限定性关系从句，在当前置短语中含有that 时， 如我只能给你我不需要的东西 （不是 that that I don't need )或 我们只想分发那本最用的书 （好于that book that will be most helpful )。 当从句主语与从句前短语所指不一致时，that 在关系从句中可以省略。 因此，我们可以说the book that I was reading 或者 the book I was reading 。 在这里，从句主语(I )和短语 the book 的主语不同。 在这些情况下，that 的省略有时被认为是错误的， 但是这在实际中极普遍而且在规范写作中有充分的先例。对于that 用于引导从句时被省略偶然持有异议， 如在我认为我们应该再试一次 中。 但这种用法完全符合语法而且实际上有一些引导这样从句的短语支持；因此，可以正常应用 〔research〕Some critics have objected to the use ofresearch as a transitive verb, but the usage has ample historical precedent and is common in reputable writing.In the most recent survey 81 percent of the Usage Panel accepted the sentence 一些评论家反对把research 一词作为及物动词使用， 但是这一用法有充足的历史先例并在优秀的写作中司空见惯。在最近的一次调查中81%的用法专题小组成员接受了 〔kind〕To this may be added a word of caution to American writers:despite the existence of ample literary precedent forthese kind of films, the construction has been so thoroughly stigmatized by native grammariansthat its use would have to be reckoned indiscreet, if not strictly incorrect.关于这一点也许可以给美国作家加上一句警告：尽管有大量的像these kind of films 一样的文学上的先例存在， 这一结构已被本国的语法专家彻底否定掉，以至于它的用法即使不认为是严格的错误，也会被认作不慎重〔precedent〕An act or instance that may be used as an example in dealing with subsequent similar instances.先例：在处理今后类似事件时可用作示范的行为或事例〔graffito〕The formgraffiti, based on the Italian plural, is far more common than the singular form graffito. Graffitiis often used as a singular noun. When the reference is to a particular inscription (as inThere was a bold graffiti on the wall ), the formgraffito would be etymologically correct but might strike some readers as pedantic outside an archaeological context.There is no substitute for the singular use ofgraffiti when the word is used as a mass noun to refer to inscriptions in general or to the related social phenomenon. The sentenceGraffiti is a major problem for the Transit Authority Police cannot be rewordedGraffito is . . . (since graffito can refer only to a particular inscription) or Graffiti are . . . , which suggests that the police problem involves only the physical marks and not the larger issue of vandalism.In such contexts,the use ofgraffiti as a singular is justified by both utility and widespread precedent. 基于意大利语的复数形式graffiti 远比单数形式 graffito更普遍。 Graffiti常用作单数名词。 当意指一特定涂鸦物（如在墙上有一处下流的涂鸦 中）， graffito 的形式在词形变化上是正确的， 但可能会在古文化语境外使一些人显得迂腐。graffiti 的单数作物质名词使用来指涂鸦的总称或相应的社会现象时，是没有替代词的。 句子：涂鸦是公共交通警察局遇到的主要难题 ， 不能用Graffito is … 来替换（因为 graffito 只能指一具体的涂鸦）或用 Graffiti are … 来替换， 因其意指警察的问题只涉及存在的标记而不是破坏公物的大问题。在这些语境中，graffiti 作为单数形式的使用是被广泛使用的先例所证实的 〔example〕A similar case that constitutes a model or precedent:先例：类似树立模范或开创先例的例子：〔wake〕The pairswake, waken and awake, awaken have formed a bewildering array since the Middle English period. All four words have similar meanings, though there are some differences in use.Onlywake is used in the sense "to be awake,” as in expressions likewaking (not wakening ) and sleeping, every waking hour. Wake is also more common than waken when used together with up; andawake and awaken never occur in this context: She woke up (rarely wakened up; never awakened up or awoke up ). Some writers have suggested thatwaken should be used only transitively and awaken only intransitively, but there is ample literary precedent for usages such asHe wakened early and They did not awaken her. In figurative sensesawake and awaken are more prevalent: wake,waken 和 awake,awaken 这两对词自中古英语以来就形成令人不解的一组词。 四个词有相似的意思，尽管在用法上有差异。只有wake 用于“保持清醒”的意义， 如在waking （而非 wakening ) and sleeping, every waking hour（清醒和睡眠，每一个醒着的时刻）。 Wake在与 up 一同用时也比 waken 更常用； 并且awake 和 awaken 从不出现在这种语言环境中： She woke up （很少用 wakened up ；从不用 awakened up 或 awoke up )。 有些作家指出waken 应只用作及物的而 awaken 只用作不及物的， 但有很多文学上的用法先例,如He wakened early（他醒得早） 和 They did not awaken her（他们没惊醒她）。 在比喻意义上awake 和 awaken 更普遍： 〔whose〕It has sometimes been claimed thatwhose should be used only as the possessive form of who and should thus be restricted to animate antecedents, as ina man whose power has greatly eroded. But there is extensive literary precedent for the use ofwhose as the possessive of which, as inThe play, whose style is rigidly formal, is typical of the period. In an earlier survey this example was acceptable to a large majority of the Usage Panel.The alternate formof which also can be used to this purpose, as in The play, the style of which is rigidly formal, is typical of the period. But as this example demonstrates, substitutingof which for whose may result in stiltedness. See Usage Note at else ,which ,who 人们有时认为whose 只应作为 who 的所有格形式并限于表示有生命的先行词， 如在句子a man whose power has greatly erode. （能力已大大衰退的人）中。 但把whose 用作 which 的所有形式也是有许多先例的， 如 the play, whose style is rigidly formal, is typical of the period. （这个剧本的文体僵化正式，是当时的典型）。 在早期，这种用法对于用法专题小组的多数人来说都是可以接受的。其变化形式of which 在这种情况下也可用，如 The play, the style of which is rigidly formal, is typical of the period. 。但象 这个例子所显示的一样，用of which 代替 whose 会显得不自然 参见 else,which,who〔center〕According to traditional canons of usage,the verbcenter may be freely used with the prepositions on, upon, in, or at; but its use witharound is excoriated as "ungrammatical,” "illogical,” "geometrically senseless,” and "physically impossible.” But the fact that writers persist in using this phrase in sentencessuch asThe discussion centered around the need for curriculum revision (where traditionalists would require revolved around ) suggests a widespread perception that center around, for all its apparent illogicality,may sometimes represent the true nature of experience.Center may denote a variety of relations involving having, finding, or turning about a center, and the choice of a preposition depends on what is intended.There is reputable precedent for usagessuch asOur hope centered in the young sovereign; 根据传统用法，动词center 可以和介词 on，upon，in 或 at 自由连用； 但它和around 连用却被严厉指责为“不合语法”，“不合逻辑”，“几何上无意义”，“物理上不可能”。 然而事实上作家们坚持在句子里使用这个短语，比如讨论围绕修订工作的需求展开 （这里传统人士将用 rovolve around ）表明 center around 揭示了一个普遍的认识， 即尽管它明显不合逻辑，有时也会代表经验的真正特性。Center 可以指示包括拥有，发现或围绕中心转动在内的多种关系， 介词的选择取决于具体意向。用法上有著名的先例，如我们的希望集中于年轻的帝王身上； 〔institute〕Something instituted, especially an authoritative rule or precedent.原则，规则：制定出的东西，特别是权威的规则或先例〔myriad〕Throughout most of its history in Englishmyriad was used as a noun, as ina myriad of men. In the 19th centuryit began to be used as an adjective,as inmyriad men; this usage became so well entrenchedthat many people came to consider it as the only correct possibility.In fact, both uses have not only ample precedent in English but also etymological justification from Greek,in as much as the Greek wordmurias from which myriad derives could be used as either a noun or an adjective.Both uses may be considered equally acceptable,as in Samuel Taylor Coleridge's"Myriad myriads of lives.” 在英语中，myriad 的大部分历史一直被用作名词， 如在数以万计的男子 。 在19世纪，它开始被用作形容词，如在myriad men 中， 这种用法很快就被人们认可了，而且还认为它是唯一的正确用法。事实上，这两种用法不仅在英语中而且在希腊语的语源纠正中都有许多先例，因为源于myriad 的希腊语单词 munias ， 既可用作名词也可用作形容词。两种用法同样被接受，如塞缪尔·泰勒尔里奇的"Myriad myriad of lives" 〔circumstance〕Use of the idiomunder the circumstances is justified by both logic and reputable precedent,and objections to it must be accounted at best overfussy if not also,as H.W. Fowler put it, "puerile.”习语under the circumstances 的使用， 由逻辑和规范的先例两者来证明为正确，否则对于此点的反对至少会被看作过于咬文嚼字，正如福勒所评价的“幼稚”〔providing〕In the past some critics have maintained thatprovided is preferable to providing as a conjunction meaning "on condition that.” The use ofproviding has ample precedent, however, and cannot be considered incorrect.过去一些批评家认为provided 在作意为“在…条件下”的连词时比 providing 更为可取。 但是，用providing 这个词也有许多先例， 因此不能认为它是不正确的〔precedential〕Of, relating to, or constituting a precedent.先例性的：属于、关于或组成先例的〔doctrine〕A rule or principle of law, especially when established by precedent.法律原则：尤其由先例形成的法律的原理、规则〔kind〕In fact, thekind of construction can be plausibly analyzed either way, which is doubtless why writers have mixed and matched the number of demonstratives and verbs in just about every possible combination.We find reputable precedent forthis kind of films are, these kind of films are, this kind of films is, these kind of films is, and so on. There are only two reliable regularities:when the pluralkinds is used, the demonstrative and the verb must also be plural: 实际上，kind of 结构可以用任一方式分析， 这毫无疑问是作家混用了指示代词和动词的每一种可能的结合，并且每一种结合的数量大致相等的原因。我们找到规范的先例，如this kind of films are, these kind of films are, this kind of films is, these kind of films is 等等。 只有两种可信赖的规律：当复数kinds 使用时， 指示代词和动词也只是复数： 〔whatever〕Bothwhatever and what ever can be used in sentences such as Whatever (or What ever ) made her say that? Critics have occasionally objected to the one-word form,but it is supported by extensive precedent in reputable writing.The same is true of the formswhoever, whenever, wherever, and however when these expressions are used similarly. In adjectival uses only the one-word form is used:Take whatever (not what ever ) books you need. ? When a clause beginning withwhatever is the subject of a sentence, no comma should be used: Whatever you do is right. Otherwise, a comma may be used:Whatever you do, don't burn the toast. ? When the phrase preceding a restrictive clause is introduced bywhichever or whatever, that should not be used in formal writing. It is regarded as incorrect to writewhatever book that you want to look at; one should write insteadWhatever book you want to look at will be sent to your office or Whichever book costs less (not that costs less ) is fine with us. See Usage Note at however ,that whatever 和 what ever 这两个词都可用在例如 Whatever （或 What ever ) made her say that?（究竟是什么使得她说那样的话?） 这样的句子里。 批评家们经常反对单一词形，但有声望作品的大量先例却支持了单词形式。同样地，当whoever, whenever, wherever 及 however 这些表述被用于类似情况时，其情形也是如此。 用作定语时只用单词形式：Take whatever （不是 what ever ） books you need。（拿那些你要的书） ？ whatever 为句首的从句作句子主语时，不能用逗号： Whatever you do is right（无论你做什么都是对的）。 在其他情况可以用逗号：Whatever you do, don't burn the toast（不管你做什么，不要烤糊了吐司） ? 当先于一限定性从句的短语是由whichever 或 whatever引入时， that不能用在正式文体中。 这样的句子：whatever book that you want to look at（无论哪本你想看的书） 是被看作不正确的； 相反应该是Whatever book you want to look at will be sent to your office（你想看的任何一本书都将会送到你的办公室去） 或者 Whichever book costs less （不是 that costs less ) is fine with us（花费少一些的书比较适合我们） 参见 however,that〔contrary〕The judge ruled contrary to all precedent in the case.法官在此案的审理中违背了所有的先例〔repulse〕A number of critics have maintained thatrepulse should only be used to mean "to drive away, spurn,” as inHe rudely repulsed their overtures, and not to mean "to cause repulsion in,”as inTheir hypocrisy repulsed me. In recent years, however, there has been an increasing tendency to userepulse in the sense "cause repulsion in.” Reputable literary precedent exists for this usage,and the confusion is understandable,given that the stigmatized use ofrepulse is parallel to the unexceptionable uses of repulsion and repulsive. Still, writers who want to stay on the safe side may prefer to use onlyrepel when the intended sense is "cause repulsion in.” 一些评论家坚持认为repulse 一词应该只用来指“赶走；摒弃，” 如在他粗鲁地拒绝了他们的提议 中， 而不应用来表示“使产生反感，”如在他们的虚伪使我产生了反感 中。 然而近来却越来越倾向于在“使产生反感”的意义上使用repulse 一词。 这一用法有着为优秀作家所认可的文学先例，而且这一困惑是可以理解的，如果repulse 这一被指责的用法是与 repulsion 以及 repulsive 的无懈可击的用法相对应的。 然而，想站在安全一边的作家在其意思是“使产生反感”时，可能只愿意使用repel 一词 〔doubt〕That is also the usual choice when the truth of the clause following doubt is assumed, as in negative sentences and questions. ThusI never doubted for a minute that I would be rescued implies "I was certain that I would be rescued.” By the same token,Do you doubt that you will be paid? seems to pose a rhetorical question ("Surely you believe that you will be paid"), whereasDo you doubt whether you will be paid? may express a genuine request for information and might be followed bybecause if you do, you should make the client post a bond. In other cases, however, this distinction betweenwhether and that is not always observed, andthat is frequently used as a substitute for whether. If may also be used as a substitute forwhether but is more informal in tone. ·In informal speech the clause followingdoubt is sometimes introduced with but: I don't doubt but (or but what ) he will come. Reputable precedent exists for this construction,as in"I do not doubt but England is at present as polite a Nation as any in the World" (Richard Steele),but modern critics sometimes object to its use in formal writing.See Usage Note at but ,if 在否定句及疑问句中当doubt 后的从句所作陈述被认为是真时，用 that 。 所以我从不怀疑我会被救起 意思就是“我确信我会得救”。 同样你怀疑人家会赖帐吗？ 似乎就成了一个反问句（“你当然相信人家不会赖帐了”）， 而你怀疑人家是否付款吗？ 就表示一个真诚的询问， 可能接下来会说因为如果你怀疑的话，你就该让顾客付保证金 。 在其它情况下，whether 和 that 的区别并不很明显， 而且that 经常用来替代 whether。 If 也经常用来代替whether ， 但是语气不很正式。在非正式语气中doubt 后面的从句有时由 but引导：I don't doubt but （或 but what ) he will come。 这种结构有其先例且属规范用法，如“我不怀疑目前的英格兰象世界上其他国家一样是礼义之邦” （理查德·斯蒂尔），但现代评论家有时反对在正式文体中这样使用 参见 but,if〔than〕Since the 18th centurygrammarians have insisted thatthan should be regarded as a conjunction in all its uses, so that a sentence such asBill is taller than Tom should be construed as an elliptical version of the sentence Bill is taller than Tom is. According to this view,the case of a pronoun followingthan is determined by whether the pronoun serves as the subject or object of the verb that is "understood.” Thus, the standard rule requiresPat is taller than I (not me ) on the assumption that this sentence is elliptical forPat is taller than I am but allowsThe news surprised Pat more than me, since this sentence is taken as elliptical forThe news surprised Pat more than it surprised me. However,than is quite commonly treated as a preposition when followed by an isolated noun phrase, and as such occurs with a pronoun in the objective case:John is taller than me. Though this usage is still widely regarded as incorrect,it is predominant in speechand has reputable literary precedent.It is also consistent with the fact thatthan is clearly treated as a preposition in the than whom construction, as ina poet than whom (not than who ) no one has a dearer place in the hearts of his countrymen. Still, the writer who risks a sentence such asMary is taller than him in formal writing must be prepared to defend the usage against objections of critics who are unlikely to be dissuaded from their conviction that the usage is incorrect. · Comparatives usingas . . . as can be analyzed in a parallel way to those using than. Traditional grammarians insist thatI am not as tall as he is the only correct form, and though both literary precedent and syntactic arguments can be marshaled in support of the analysis of the secondas as a preposition (which would license I am not as tall as him ), one should treat this use ofas as a conjunction in formal writing. See Usage Note at as 1自18世纪以来，语法学家坚持以为than 在其所有用法中均应被看作连词， 因此，在诸如Bill is taller than Tom 的句子中应解释为句子 Bill is taller than Tom is 的省略说法。 根据这一观点，than 后跟随代词的情况取决于该代词作为所“理解”的动词的主语还是谓语。 这样，标准规则要求Pat is taller than I （而不是 me )， 考虑到这个句子是Pat is taller than I am 的省略， 但允许The news surprised Pat more than me ， 因为这个句子被认当是The news surprised Pat more than it surprised me 的省略。 然而，当than 跟随一个独立名词短语时常被看作是介词， 如代词用于宾语的情况：John is taller than me 。 尽管这种用法仍然被广泛认为是错误的，但它仍在口语中占主要地位，并且有著名的文学先例。它也符合than 在 than whom 结构中显然被认为是介词的事实， 就象在a poet than whom （而不是 than who ) no one has a dearer place in the hearts of his countrymen 。 然而，冒险在正式写作中应用诸如Mary is taller than him 的作者必须准备针对那些不可能被劝服放弃坚信这种用法是错误的批评家们的反对意见而对此种用法进行辩护。 用比较级as…as 可以用与 than 相同的方式进行分析。 传统的语法学家坚持认为I am not as tall as he 是唯一正确的形式， 尽管文学先例和语法规则都能支持第二个as 作为介词（即允许 I am not as tall as him )的分析， 我们仍应该把这个as 作为正式写作中的连词 参见 as1 |
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英汉汉英双解词典收录301015条英汉双解翻译词条，可根据汉字查询相应的英文词汇，基本涵盖了全部常用汉字的英文读音、翻译及用法，是英语学习及翻译工作的有利工具。