| 单词 | 即使 |
| 释义 | 〔outlaw〕The wordoutlaw brings to mind cattle rustlers and gunslingers of the Wild West, but it comes to us from a much earlier time,when guns were not yet inventedbut cattle stealing was.Outlaw can be traced back to the Old Norse word ūtlagr, "outlawed, banished,” made up ofūt, "out,” and lög, "law.” Anūtlagi (derived from ūtlagr ) was someone outside the protection of the law. The Scandinavians, who invaded and settled in England during the 8th through the 11th century, gave us the Old English wordūtlaga, which designated someone who because of criminal acts must give up his property to the crown and could be killed without recrimination.The legal status of the outlaw became less severe over the course of the Middle Ages.However, the looser use of the word to designate criminals in general, which arose in Middle English, lives on in tales of the Wild West.单词outlaw 使人联想到美国西部的偷牛贼和持枪歹徒， 然而在此之前很早这词就已存在了，那时枪还没有发明出来，但已有偷牛贼了。Outlaw 可溯源到古斯堪的纳维亚语 utlagr， 意为“非法的，被放逐的”， 由ut 意为“在…外”和 log 意为“法律”组成。 Utlagi （从 utlagr 衍生而来）形容不受法律保护的人。 在8世纪到11世纪间侵略并定居于英格兰的斯堪的纳维亚人创造了古英语词utlaga， 指由于犯罪行为而必须把财产献给皇家并且即使被杀死也不能反诉。在中世纪时期被放逐者的法律地位不如以前那么严格了。然而中世纪英语中兴起的命名罪犯总称的这种宽松用法在美国西部的传说中仍然存在〔series〕Series is both a singular and a plural form. When it has the singular sense of "one set,”it takes a singular verb, even whenseries is followed by of and a plural noun: Series 既是单数形式又是复数形式。 当它具有“一套”的单数意思时，它使用单数动词，即使当series 紧接着 of 和一个复数名词时也是如此： 〔nod〕Even Homer nods.即使荷马也疏忽〔minimal〕Under the strict interpretation ofminimal, this sentence should mean only "Alcohol has an unpleasant effect when I have eaten nothing.”If the looser interpretation is allowed, however,the sentence can also mean “ . . . when I have eaten a bit.”Presented with the sentence, 29 percent of the Usage Panel said that it could have only the "eaten nothing" (that is, the strict) interpretation;34 percent said that it could have only the "eaten a bit" (that is, the looser) interpretation;and 37 percent said that it could have either meaning.Thus the looser sense ofminimal is accepted by 71 percent of the Panel and must be considered acceptable in nontechnical use. · In an analogous shift,the verbminimize is often used to mean "to reduce,” an extension of its strict etymological sense of "to reduce to the smallest possible level.”This looser usage is the result of the imprecision that usually attaches to the use of the verb in most nontechnical contexts.When a manager announces thatThe company wants to minimize the risk of accidents to line workers, we naturally interpret the manager as meaning that the risk is to be reduced to the smallest level consistent with considerations of efficiency and cost,not that risks are to be reduced to the lowest level logically possible.Even when used with allowable imprecision, however, the verbminimize should carry some implication that the relevant quantity is reduced as much as could reasonably be expected in the circumstances.Thusminimize retains at least an approximately superlative sense and so is inconsistent with modification by adverbs such asgreatly or considerably, which imply that the verb is being used as a simple synonym forlessen or reduce. 若句中的minimal 的意思比较严格， 那么这一句就只能理解为“当我什么没吃时喝酒会搞得我很难受。”但是如果比较宽泛的词义得到承认，那么这一句同时也有“…当我吃过一点东西时”这层意思。百分之二十九的用法专题使用小组成员认为这一词只能当“什么都不吃”（即严格意义上的词义）来讲；百分之三十四的成员说它只有“吃过一点”（即宽泛一些的）词义；百分之三十七的成员说两种含义都可适用。所以minimal 宽泛的含义被用法专题使用小组的百分之七十一的成员接受。 与其相类似的是，动词minimize 经常被用来指“减少”， 是其“减少到最可能小的水平”的严格意义上的延伸。这一较宽泛的含义是非技术性文章使用这一动词的不精确性而带来的结果。当一个经理宣称公司试图将生产线上工人面临出事故的风险降至最低， 我们自然会认为经理的意思是工厂的事故风险将被降至一个同时又考虑效率和成本的最小程度，而不是逻辑上可以达到的最低程度。即使在可以允许不精确的程度内使用时，动词mininize 也应有一层隐含的意思， 即其相对数量已被减少到了情况所期望的合理的程度。这样，minimize 至少仍然保留着一种大致为最高级的意思， 因而它与这些副词如greatly 或 considerably 不能搭配使用， 因为这些副词暗示着这一动词被当成了lessen 或 reduce 简单同义词而使用 〔plus〕This observation has suggested to some thatplus should be regarded as a preposition in these uses, on the model of expressions such astogether with or in addition to. But the phrases introduced byplus do not behave like prepositional phrases in other respects. They cannot be moved to the beginning of the sentence, for example.We do not sayPlus the bad weather, the construction slowdown has made for a weak market (contrast the acceptable sentence beginning withTogether with the bad weather ). What is more,subjects containing two noun phrases connected byplus are usually singular even when the first noun phrase is plural: 对有些人来说上面这句话会暗示plus 在这类用法中应被视为一个介词， 如在together with 或 in addition to 这样的表达模式中。 但由plus 引导的短语在其它方面并不象介词性短语。 例如它们不能放到句首。我们并不说加之糟糕的天气，施工的减少会导致市场不景气 （试比较用Together with the bad weather 开头的可被接受的句子）。 此外，即使由plus 联结的两个名词性短语中第一个名词性短语为复数，主语通常仍为单数： 〔protest〕"unrough youths that even now/Protest their first of manhood"(Shakespeare)“即使是文质彬彬的青年现在／也开始展示他们的阳刚之气”(莎士比亚)〔kudos〕Kudos is one of those words like congeries that look like pluralsbut are etymologically singular:correctness requiresKudos is (not are ) due her for her brilliant work on the score. Some writers have tried to defend the use ofkudos with a plural verb, or even the introduction of a new singular form ofkudo, on the grounds that these innovations follow the pattern whereby the English words pea and cherry were re-formed from nouns ending in-s that were thought to be plural. Perhaps the singularkudo would have to be acknowledged as a legitimate formation if it came to be widely adopted in the popular language in the way that cherry and pea have. But at presentkudos is still regarded as a slightly pretentious variant for praise and can scarcely claim to be part of the linguistic folkways of the community.When writers reach for an unfamiliar Greek word for the sake of elegance,it is fair to ask that they get it right.Still, it is worth notingthat even people who are carefulto treat the word syntactically as a singularoften pronounce it as if it were a plural:etymology would require that the final consonant be pronounced as a voiceless (s),rather than as a voiced (z).Kudos 和 congeries 那些词一样， 看上去好象是复数，但从词源上看是单数：因此正确的用法应该是Kudos is （不是 are ） due her for her brilliant work on the score 。 许多作者为kudos 后跟动词复数形式的做法辩护， 他们甚至发明了一个新的词kudo 作为该词的单数形式，他们这样做是以英语单词 pea 和 cherry 的形成模式为依据的， 这些词都是从原先结尾带-s 的复数形式名词演化而来。 kudo 这种单数形式只有在象 cherry 和 pea 这样为大众语言所普遍接受之后才能被认可为一种正确的形式。 但是现在kudos 这个词仍被看作是 praise 这个词稍稍有些做作的变体， 还很难成为社群的习惯用语的一部份。当一个作家为了行文的优雅用一个生僻的希腊词的时候，他应该正确地使用它。但是值得注意的是，即使是那些非常仔细的人，他们在句子中把它用作单数，但在读的时候却读成复数的形式：根据词源来看，这个词最后一个辅音应该发成清辅音（s），而不是浊辅音（z）〔tire〕Even an exquisitely prepared dinner couldn't revive her jaded palate. 即使是一顿精心准备的晚餐也不能恢复她吃腻了的胃口 〔satiate〕Even the surrender of half of Europe failed to glut Hitler's ambition.即使是半个欧洲的投降也不能满足希特勒的野心。〔what〕What does it matter if.即使…又有什么关系〔see〕Even with a magnifying glass I couldn't discern any imperfections in the porcelain.即使有一个放大镜，我也不能发现瓷器上的任何瑕点。〔so〕But this rule is best regarded as a stylistic preference;in such clausesthat is frequently omitted even by reputable writers in formal contexts, as inThey will have to double up so (or so that ) room can be found for the new arrivals. · Bothso and so that are acceptably used to introduce clauses that state a result or consequence: 但是这条规则最好被认为是格式上的偏好。在这样的句子中，即使是很著名的作家也在正式的文章中经常省略that ， 如在句子他们将不得不两个人睡一张床，以便 （或者 so that ) 新到的人能找到住房 。 So 和 so that 都可以被接受用来引入陈述一个结果或后果的从句： 〔admonish〕"Even if I had done wrong you should not have reproached me in public—people wash their dirty linen at home" (Napoleon Bonaparte).即使是我做错了事，你也不应该当众指责我-家丑不能外扬” （拿破仑·波拿巴）〔impact〕Each generation of critics seems to select one particular usage to stand as the emblem of what they view as linguistic crassness.Thirty years ago it was the use ofcontact as a verb, but opposition to that form has more or less disappeared,and attention now focuses on the verbal use ofimpact meaning "have an effect, affect.” Eighty-four percent of the Usage Panel disapproves of the constructionto impact on, as in the phrasesocial pathologies, common to the inner city, that impact heavily on such a community; and fully 95 percent disapproves of the use ofimpact as a transitive verb in the sentence Companies have used disposable techniques that have a potential for impacting our health. But even these figures do not reflect the degree of distaste with which critics view the usage:in their comments some Panelists labeled the usage as "bureaucratic,” "pretentious,” "vile,” and "a vulgarism.” ·It may be that the particular pretentiousness associated with the verbal use ofimpact is caused by its derivation from an already questionable metaphoric use of the noun impact, as in phrases such asthe political impact of the decision or the impact of the program on the community, in which no more is usually meant than might have been expressed by effects or consequences. But thoughimpact may have begun life a generation ago as an inflated substitute for "affect significantly,” it has by now become so common in corporate and institutional contexts that younger speakers appear to regard it as wholly standard and straightforward usage.Within a few years, accordingly,the usage is likely to be no more objectionable thancontact is now, since it will no longer betray any particular pretentiousness on the part of those who use it.See Usage Note at contact 每一代的批评家好象都挑了一个特别的用法作为他们认为的语言上的愚蠢行为的象征。三十年以前是contact 作为动词的用法， 但是对这种形式的反对或多或少已经消失了，注意力现在集中到了impact 意思为“有不好的影响、影响”的动词用法上。 用法专题小组成员中百分之八十四不同意to impact on 的结构， 如在短语对内城区来说很普通的社会病理学，对这样一个社区产生了很大影响的 当中； 百分之九十五的成员完全不同意impact 在句子 公司已经使用了可能会对我们的健康产生不良影响的易处理技术 中当作及物动词来使用。 但是即使是这些数字也没有反映出批评家们对这种用法厌恶的程度：在他们的评论当中有些成员把这种用法说成是“官僚主义的”、“装腔作势的”，“可耻的”，还说这是“粗鄙的语言。”也许和impact 的动词用法有关联的虚饰成份是由于它是从名词 impact 的一个早有争议的比喻用法衍变而来造成的。 如在短语这个决定在政治上的影响 或者 这个计划对公众的影响 中它的意思并没有比用 effects 或者 consequences 表达出来的意思要多。 尽管impact 作为“明显地影响”的夸大了的替代可能在一代人之前开始产生， 但是现在的年轻一代使用者看上去把它当成了完全标准的、直接的用法，这在共同的和惯例的文章中已经很普遍了。相应地在几年内，这种用法很有可能不比今天的contact 更引起反对， 因为对于那些使用它的人来说这不会再显得有点矫揉造作了 参见 contact〔showcase〕Still more opaque is use of the verb to mean simply "to expose to public view,”even when its object is neither admirable nor desirable: 这个动词更晦涩的用法是表示“曝光于公众视线之下”的意思，即使对象既不令人钦佩也不受人欢迎： 〔smoke〕The station wagon smoked even after the tune-up.车站的机车即使在经过调试以后依然不停地冒烟〔hurt〕"Even in a business that's hurting there's always a guy who can make a buck"(New York)“即使在一萧条的行业中也总有人能赚大钱”(纽约)〔whiffletree〕Whiffletree, a term primarily used in the northeast United States, is derived from an older termwhippletree, which is used in the Upper Northern states farther to the west.The fact thatwhiffletree, the newer term, is used in the Northeast, the older dialect area, illustrates the process of linguistic change. Even as the older wordwhippletree was spreading westward into a new dialect area, it was evolving into something different—whiffletree —in the area where it originated, as if the older dialect area were somehow trying to keep a step ahead.Whiffletree， 一个起初在美国东北部使用的词， 是从一个更古老的词whippletree 而来， 该词用在距西部更远些的北部各州等地。Whiffletree 这个更新些的词用在东北部——这个较老的方言区的事实证明了语言变化的过程。 即使当老一些的词whippletree 向西扩展进入一个新的方言区时， 它也牵涉到了一些不一样的东西——whiffletree 在它的起源地区， 就好象老一些的方言区在试图采取步骤向前〔if〕Again according to the traditional rule,the subjunctive is not correctly used following verbs such asask or wonder in if clauses that express indirect questions, even if the content of the question is presumed to be contrary to fact: 另外还是根据传统规则，在动词ask 或 wonder 中 if 引导的间接问句， 即使其内容被认为与事实相反，也不能使用虚拟语气： 〔dishonest〕Even when she is not being overtly mendacious,she tinkers with the truth. 即使当她不是公开撒谎时，她在事实的真相上也是笨拙的 〔separate〕"a policeman's way of being separate from you even when he was being nice"(John le Carré)“即使当警察很和蔼时，他还是也与你不同”(约翰·勒·卡里)〔turn〕Even a feather will turn a delicate scale.一台精密的天平能称出即使是一片羽毛的重量〔charm〕delicacies that beguile even the most discerning gourmet;即使是最识货的美食家也会着迷的美味佳肴；〔nonresistance〕The practice or principle of complete obedience to authority even if unjust or arbitrary.不抵抗：完全服从于即使是不公平或霸道的势力的实践或原则〔Atahualpa〕Last Incan emperor of Peru (1525-1533). He was captured by the Spaniards, convicted of plotting against Pizarro, and executed by garrote despite his agreement to a vast ransom.阿塔瓦尔帕：秘鲁印加帝国末代皇帝（1525-1533年），他被西班牙人囚禁，认定他密谋反对皮萨罗，即使他同意支付大笔赎金仍被绞刑处死〔shake〕"stepping in between the victim and the bully, even when the victim happens to be no great shakes"(Louis Auchincloss)“即使受害者是普通百姓，我们也应保护受害者不受恶霸欺侮”(路易斯·奥金克洛斯)〔author〕The verbauthor, which had been out of use for a long period, has been rejuvenated in recent years with the sense "to assume responsibility for the content of a published text.” As such it is not quite synonymous with the verbwrite ; one can write, but not author, a love letter or an unpublished manuscript,and the writer who ghostwrites a book for a celebrity cannot be said to have "authored" the creation. The sentenceHe has authored a dozen books on the subject was unacceptable to 74 percent of the Usage Panel, probably because it implies that the fact of having a book published is worthy of special lexical distinction, a notion that sits poorly with conventional literary sensibilities,and which seems to smack of press agentry.The sentenceThe Senator authored a bill limiting uses of desert lands in California was similarly rejected by 64 percent of the Panel, though here the usage is common journalistic practice,and is perhaps justified by the observation that we do not expect that legislators will actually write the bills to which they attach their names. ·The verbcoauthor is well established in reference to scientific and scholarly publications, where it serves a useful purpose,since the people listed as authors of such works routinely include research collaborators who have played no part in the actual writing of the text,but who are nonetheless entitled to credit for the published results.动词author， 很长一段时间不再使用， 近年来又以“对某一出版作品的内容负有责任”的含义重新起用。因此，它已不完全同动词write 同义； 一个人可以写一封求爱信或未出版的草稿，但不是作者，某一人即使雇人写出一篇杰作也不能说是“创作”了作品。对句子他已就这个论题创作了十二部作品 74%的用法专题小组不能接受， 可能因为它暗示着一个事实，即一本已出版的书一定有特别的词汇意义上区别的价值，这是与传统文学观念不太相容的概念，并带有出版机构的意味。此句参议员提出了一个限制使用加利福尼亚地区沙漠土地的议案 ，同样有64%的用法专题小组成员不能接受， 虽然这里这种用法是新闻界实践的惯用。这恐怕是因为我们并不希望立法人员真的是写作一项议案然后在其上署上他们的名字吧。·动词coauthor 是在科学及学术发表论文的意义上建立的， 这里这个词的使用有一个重要意义，因为创作者名单上列出作为这部作品创作者的人通常包括共同研究人员，既使他们实际上并未参加写作，但不可否认地对出版物的结果做出了贡献〔suave〕"Urbane and pliant . . . he was at ease even in the drawing rooms of Paris" (R.R. Palmer).“由于他彬彬有礼且温顺谦和，所以即使是在巴黎上流社会的客厅中他也能表现得自在安然” (P.R.帕尔默）。〔opossum〕The wordopossum takes us back to the earliest days of the United States. The settlement of Jamestown, Virginia, was founded in 1607 by the London Company, chartered for the planting of colonies.Even though the first years were difficult,promotional literature was glowing.In one such piece,A True Declaration of the Estate of the Colonie in Virginia, published in 1610, we find this passage: "There are . . . Apossouns, in shape like to pigges.”This is the first recorded use ofopossum, although in a spelling that differs from the one later settled on to reproduce the sound of the Virginia Algonquian word from which our word came.The wordopossum and its shortened form possum, first recorded in 1613 in more promotional literature, remind us of a time when the New World was still very new, settlers were few,and the inhabitants for whom the New World was not new were plentiful.词语opossum 把我们带回到了早期的美国社会。 伦敦公司，作为开拓殖民地的委托者，在1607年建立了弗吉尼亚詹姆斯敦的居民点。即使在最初的年代里很困难，激进文学也开始抬头。在其中有一篇于1610年出版的弗吉尼亚殖民地的真实宣言 ， 其中有一段“一种形似猪的动物”，就是最早的关于opossum 的记录， 虽然它的拼写和现在我们所使用的弗吉尼亚阿尔贡金语的拼写有所不同。词语opossum 和其缩写形式 possum 最初于1613年记录在更加激进的文学作品中， 让我们回想起当新大陆还很陌生而且只有很少的居住者时，已有许多对于新大陆并不陌生的土著居民〔shift〕"See me safe up: for my coming down, I can shift for myself"(Thomas More)“我不会出事的：即使我落魄，也可以自谋生路”(托马斯·莫尔)〔rent〕When young people talk about theirrents, that is, their parents, they are using a slang term that is of interest to language historians, if not necessarily thrilling for parents themselves. The term is a prime example of one of the fundamental characteristics of slang, which continually creates novel ways of expressing what are often rather ordinary things (if parents may be considered ordinary things). Slang has recently produced two expressions for "parents" that have gained wide currency— rents and parental units. Both expressions demonstrate slang's use of unusual or creative linguistic means to achieve novelty of expression. While there are many slang terms, such as bod for body or rad for radical, that result from the clipping of unstressed syllables, rents is a clipping that drops a stressed syllable, much like the similar term za, "pizza.” The desire to coin new ways of referring to things also leads speakers of slang to use circumlocutions like knuckle sandwich for "punch.” Parental units falls into this category. It plays on the jargon of bureaucrats and social science, in which the world is viewed as so much data waiting to be quantified. The appearance of terms such as rents and parental units also shows that all available styles and levels of language can be grist for slang's mill—so long as the material is perceived as irreverent, funny, or just plain cool. 年轻人谈论他们的rents （即父母）时，即使肯定不会令他们的父母感到兴奋，他们却使用了一个令语言历史学家很感兴趣的俚语。Rents是俚语一个基本特色的典范，这一基本特色就是不断创造新颖词汇来表示通常极为普通的事物（如果父母会被认为是普通事物的话）。最近俚语中产生了两个"父（母）亲"的词语并被普遍使用── rents 和 parental units 。这两个词语表明俚语用不同寻常的或创造性的语言工具来获取表达上的新颖。虽然因省略非重读音节产生了许多俚语词汇，如用 bod 指body、用 rad 指radical，但 rents 却是省略重读音节后的部分，非常类似相近词汇 za "pizza（比萨饼）"。期望创造指代事物的新词也使得满口俚语的人运用赘语，如用 knuckle sandwich 指"punch（用拳击）"。 Parental units 也属于赘语的范围。它用作官僚主义者的行话以及科学术语，因为对于官僚主义者和科学工作者来讲世界就是等待量化的大量数据。诸如 rents 和 parental units 这些俚语的出现也表明语言现有的全部风格和水平都是俚语的有益补充──只要认为内容是不敬的、有趣的或者纯粹扮酷的 〔rather〕The use ofhad in these constructions may now be more infrequent than it once was but is still encountered in reputable writing: 在上述结构中使用had 现在没有过去常用， 但即使在十分著名的文章中，还能发现这种用法： 〔projection〕"Even trained anthropologists have been guilty of unconscious projection—of clothing the subjects of their research in theories brought with them into the field"(Alex Shoumatoff)“即使是受过训练的人类学家也仍会因不自觉的投射而内疚…他们常会将被他们带入该领域的理论来表达他们的研究主题”(亚历克斯·肖马托夫)〔perform〕Even the antibiotics the doctor prescribed didn't effect a complete cure. Tofulfill is to live up to expectations or satisfy demands, wishes, or requirements: 即使是这个医生开的抗生素都不能完完全全地将其治愈。 Fulfill 指达到某期望或满足某要求、愿望或需求： 〔unplugged〕“[His] fans will be pleased that more than half the cuts have the familiar sweetness, even when they include drums and a bit of snarling unplugged guitar" (Jef Scoville)“[他的] 歌迷们很高兴一半以上的歌曲中都有熟悉的甜美风格，即使掺杂一些鼓声或非电子吉他的咆哮音乐亦无妨” (杰夫·斯科维尔)〔till〕Till is actually the older word, withuntil having been formed by the addition to it of the prefix un-, meaning "up to.” In the 18th centurythe spelling'till became fashionable, as iftill were a shortened form of until. Although'till is now nonstandard, 'til is sometimes used in this way and is considered acceptable, though it is etymologically incorrect. Till 实际上是这两个词中较早使用的一个， 在它前面加一个表示“直到”的前缀un- 构成了 until 。 在18世纪，'till 这种拼写方式很时髦， 似乎till 成了 until 的缩写形式。 尽管'till 现在不是标准的用法， 即使从词源学角度讲它是不正确的，'til 有时还这样使用，而且被认为是可以接受的 〔man〕Traditionally,man and words derived from it have been used generically to designate any or all of the human race irrespective of sex.In Old Englishthis was the principal sense ofman, which meant "a human being" regardless of sex;the wordswer and wyf (or w÷pman and wifman ) were used to refer to "a male human being" and "a female human being" respectively. But in Middle Englishman displaced wer as the term for "a male human being,”whilewyfman (which evolved into present-day woman ) was retained for "a female human being.” The result of these changes was an assymetrical arrangement that many criticize as sexist.Many writers have revised some of their practices accordingly.But the precise implications of the usage vary according to the context and the particular use ofman or its derivatives. · Man sometimes appears to have the sense of "person" or "people" when it is used as a count noun, as inA man is known by the company he keeps and Men have long yearned to unlock the secrets of the atom, and in phrases likethe common man and the man in the street. Here the generic interpretation arises indirectly:if a man is known by the company he keeps,then so, by implication, is a woman.For this reasonthe generic interpretation of these uses ofman is not possible where the applicability of the predicate varies according to the sex of the individual. Thus it would be inappropriate to say thatMen are the only animals that can conceive at any time, since the sentence literally asserts that the ability to conceive applies to male human beings.This usage presumes that males can be taken as representatives of the species.In almost all cases,however, the wordsperson and people can be substituted for man and men, often with a gain in clarity. · By contrast,man functions more as a generic when it is used without an article in the singular to refer to the human race, as in sentences likeThe capacity for language is unique to man or in phrases like man's inhumanity to man. But this use ofman is also ambiguous, since it can refer exclusively to male members of the human race.In most contexts wordssuch ashumanity or humankind will convey the generic sense of this use of man. · On the whole,the Usage Panel accepts the generic use ofman, the women members significantly less than the men. The sentenceIf early man suffered from a lack of information, modern man is tyrannized by an excess of it was acceptable to 81 percent of the Panel (including 58 percent of the women and 92 percent of the men).The Panel also accepted compound words derived from genericman. The sentenceThe Great Wall is the only man-made structure visible from space was acceptable to 86 percent (including 76 percent of the women and 91 percent of the men).The sentence"The history of language is the history of mankind" (James Bradstreet Greenough and George Lyman Kittredge) was acceptable to 76 percent (including 63 percent of the women and 82 percent of the men). Such compounds were acceptable even when the context required that they be applied chiefly to women.Thus, 66 percent of the Panel (including 57 percent of the women and 71 percent of the men) accepts the wordmanpower in the sentence Countries that do not permit women to participate in the work force are at a disadvantage in competing with those that do avail themselves of that extra source of manpower. · A related set of problems is raised by the use ofman in forming the names of occupational and social rolessuch asbusinessman, chairman, spokesman, layman, and freshman, as well as in analogous formationssuch asunsportsmanlike and showmanship. Some condemn this use categorically;however, these words remained acceptable to a majority of the Usage Panel when they were used to refer to a role or class in the abstractbut were rejected when they were used to refer to a woman.Thus the general use ofchairman was acceptable to 67 percent of the Panel (including 52 percent of the women and 76 percent of the men) in the sentence The chairman will be appointed by the Faculty Senate. But only 48 percent (including 43 percent of the women and 50 percent of the men) accepted the use of the word inEmily Owen, chairman of the Mayor's Task Force, issued a statement assuring residents that their views would be solicited, where it is applied to a woman. · Several strategies have been suggested for replacing the categorical use of compounds formed withman. Parallel terms likebusinesswoman, spokeswoman and chairwoman are increasingly used to refer to women. Also in use are common-gender terms coined withperson, such asbusinessperson, spokesperson, and chairperson. For occupational titles ending inman, new standards of official usage have been established by the U.S. Department of Labor and other government agencies.In official contexts termssuch asfirefighter and police officer are now generally used in place of fireman and policeman. · A majority of the Panelists rejected the verbman when it was used to refer to an activity performed by women. The sentenceMembers of the League of Women Voters will be manning the registration desk was unacceptable to 56 percent of the Panel (including 61 percent of the women and 54 percent of the men). See Usage Note at -ess ,people 传统上，man 以及它的衍生字一般是用来指任何人或整个人类， 不考虑性别。在古英语中，这就是man 这个字主要的意思， 即“人” 而不分性别；单词wer 和 wyf （或 woepman 和 wifman )则分别用以指“男人”和“女人”。 但在中古英语时man 取代了 wer 这个词， 也具有“男人”的意义了；而wyfman （这个字发展演变成了今天的 woman 这个字）作为“女人”这个意思被保留了下来。 这些变化的结果是，作为性别歧视者所批评的匀称排列。为此，许多作家相应地修订了他们部分的创作活动。但是这用法的准确含义取决于它的上下文以及man 的具体用途或它的衍生字。 当man 这个字被当作一个可数名词来用时，它有时似乎具有“一个人”或“人们”的意思， 如在被他所在的那个公司熟悉了解的人 和 很久以来，人们都期盼着解开原子的秘密 ， 以及如下短语中普通的人 和 街上的人 。 这里，一般的理解源于间接地推理：如果一个男人是被他所在的公司了解的话，其言下之意是，一个女人也是被他所在的公司熟悉了解的。正是这个原因，使得man 当此一般理解之义用时，其谓语随着个人性别的改变而变化是不可能的。 所以，说人是唯一能在任何时候思考的动物 是不适当的， 因为这句话字面之义是指男人的思考能力。这种用法是假定男人可以作为人类的代表。几乎毫无例外的是，词person 和 people 可以用 man 和 men 来取代，且后两字意思更清楚。 相反，当man 以单数不带冠词出现用以指人类时，它更是指一类、一属， 如在象句子只有人才有语言能力 或象短语 人类对人类的不人道 中。 但man 若以这种形式出现，其意思也会模糊不清， 因为其可只指人类中的男性成员。在大多数的行文中，例如humanity 或 humankind 这样的字也传达了 man 这种用法的一般意义。 总的说来，在用法专题使用小组成员中接受man 这种一般用法的女性比男性明显少得多。 下面这句话如果说古代人受信息不足之苦的话，那么现代人则是受信息过量之虐待了 在小组中有81的成员可接受 （其中女性成员中的接受率为58，男性中则为92)。专题小组会还接受作为一般意义的man 构成的复合词。 长城是太空中的唯一可见的人造物 这句话有86的成员接受 （其中女性成员的接受率为76，而男性中为91)。“语言史就是一部人类史” （詹姆士·布拉斯瑞特·格里诺和乔治·莱曼·基特里奇）这句话的接受率为76（基中在女性成员中有63接受，而男性中为82)。 即使是上下行文所需的字主要指的是女人，这种复合词仍然被接受。因此小组中的66（其中女性委员的57，男性的71)接受了manpower 这个词在下句的用法： 那些不允许女人加入生产力大军的国家和那些允许女人加入生产力大军的国家相比，在处理剩余劳动力这一点上明显处于竞争的劣势 。 由于man 的使用所引起的一系列相关问题产生了， 在构成职业或社会角色类别的名称，如商人、主席、发言人、外行 和 渔夫 ， 以及将这个字用于类似的构词法中，如违反运动精神的 和 善于表演的才能 。 有些人谴责这种类别的用法；然而，当它们抽象地指某种角色或阶层时，这些词仍能得到用法专题使用小组大多数人的接受；但当它们用由于指女性时，这些词就被拒绝了。因此在句子主席由职工委员会指定 中 主席 的这种一般用法就得到了67小组成员的接受（其中在女性成员中为52，而男性中为76)。 但是，在句子艾米莉·欧文，市长任务小组的主席，发表了一个声明，向市长保证将考虑他们的观点 中这个字的用法，由于是指女性，只有48的成员接受（其中在女性成员中的接受率为43，而男性中为50)。 对于如何替换用man 构成的类别复合词，几种构思被提了出来。 与之相对的复合词如女商人、女发言人 和 女主席 越来越多地被用来指女性。 另外，用person 构成的中性词也创造了出来， 如商人、发言人 和 主席 。 对于用man 结尾的职业名称， 美国政府劳工部和其它政府机构已建立起了新的官方运用标准。在官方行文，现在一般用如firefighter 和 police officer 代替 fireman 和 policeman 。 大多数的小组成员反对将动词man 用于指那些女性从事的活动。 句子登记处将配备女性选民联盟的成员 在用法专题使用小组中的反对率是56（其中在女性成员中的反对率是61，而男性中为54) 参见 -ess,people〔face〕The team managed to maintain a firm face even in times of great adversity.即使在危难时刻，这个队仍成功地保持了坚定的信心〔glitch〕Although in retrospectglitch seems to be a word that people would always have found useful, it is first recorded in English in 1962in the writing of John Glenn:"Another term we adopted to describe some of our problems was ‘glitch.’”Glenn then gives the technical sense of the word the astronauts had adopted:"Literally, a glitch is a spike or change in voltage in an electrical current.”In this very passage we see how the word moved from its narrow, technical electronic sense to a more general sense, even if the astronauts were not necessarily the first to extend the meaning ofglitch. Since then the word has passed beyond technical useand now covers a wide variety of malfunctions and mishaps.回溯历史，尽管glitch 似乎是一个向来有用的单词， 但是直到1962年它才首次在英语中有记录，在约翰·格林著作中：“我们所采用的另一个用来描述我们的问题的词汇是‘glitch’”。格林给这个词下了为宇航员所采用的专业定义， “严格来说，glitch是指电流中电压受阻或变化。”。在这里，即使宇航员不一定是第一个引申了glitch 的含义，可是我们看到这个词是如何从它狭义的电子技术上的意义发展到更普遍的意义。 此后这个词超出了技术上的使用范围，现在可指多种功能故障和灾祸〔kind〕To this may be added a word of caution to American writers:despite the existence of ample literary precedent forthese kind of films, the construction has been so thoroughly stigmatized by native grammariansthat its use would have to be reckoned indiscreet, if not strictly incorrect.关于这一点也许可以给美国作家加上一句警告：尽管有大量的像these kind of films 一样的文学上的先例存在， 这一结构已被本国的语法专家彻底否定掉，以至于它的用法即使不认为是严格的错误，也会被认作不慎重 |
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英汉汉英双解词典收录301015条英汉双解翻译词条，可根据汉字查询相应的英文词汇，基本涵盖了全部常用汉字的英文读音、翻译及用法，是英语学习及翻译工作的有利工具。