| 单词 | 反映 |
| 释义 | 〔retire〕Despite the upbeat books written about retiringand the fact that it is a well-earned time of relaxation from the daily rigors of work,many people do not find it a particularly pleasant prospect.Perhaps the etymology ofretire may hint at why. The ultimate source of our word is the Old French wordretirer, made up of the prefixre-, meaning in this case "back,” and the verb tirer, "to draw,” together meaning "to take back or withdraw.” The first use of the English wordretire is recorded in 1533 in reference to a military force that withdraws.It is not until 1667 that we find the word used to mean "to withdraw from a position for more leisure.”In regard to the sting in all thiswe need to look at the source oftirer, "to draw, draw out, endure,”which ultimately may be from Old Frenchmartir, "a martyr,” probably reflecting the fact that martyrs had to endure the torture of being stretched up to and beyond the point of dislocating their bones.尽管有关于退休的乐观书籍，以及退休是从日常工作的严酷中解放出来的极好时光的事实，许多人并没有发现它特别令人愉悦的地方。也许retire 的语源学暗示了原因。 这个词最早的来源是古法语单词retirer ， 由在此意指“向后”的前缀re- 及意为“拉”的动词 tiver 合在一起组成，意为“撤回或退回”。 英语单词retire 的使用则最早记录于1553年， 指撤退的军队。直到1667年我们才发现该词用于表达“为得到更多的闲暇而退出职位。”考虑到所有这些词的负面含义，我们有必要看看tirer 的词源， 其意为“拉，拉出，容忍，”它可能最初源于意为“殉道者”的古法语martir ， 这可能反映了一个事实，即殉者不得不忍受四肢被拉直至骨肉脱离的酷刑〔syndrome〕A group of symptoms that collectively indicate or characterize a disease, a psychological disorder, or another abnormal condition.症候群，综合症状：一组总体上反映或描述某种疾病、精神失常或其它的不正常状况的症状〔hopefully〕And though this use ofhopefully may have been a vogue word when it first gained currency 30 years ago, it has long since lost any taint of jargon or pretentiousness for the general reader.The well-attested acceptance of the usage reflects an implicit popular recognition of its usefulness;there is no precise substitute.Someone who saysHopefully, the treaty will be ratified makes a hopeful prediction about the fate of the treaty,whereas someone who saysI hope (or We hope or It is hoped ) the treaty will be ratified expresses a bald statement about what is desired. Only the latter could be continued with a clause such asbut it isn't likely. · It might have been expected, then, that the initial flurry of objections tohopefully would have subsided once the usage became well established. Instead, increased currency of the usage appears only to have made the critics more adamant.In the 1969 Usage Panel survey the usage was acceptable to 44 percent of the Panel;in the most recent survey it was acceptable to only 27 percent.(By contrast, 60 percent accepted the analogous use ofmercifully in the sentence Mercifully, the game ended before the opponents could add another touchdown to the lopsided score. ) Yet the Panel has not shown any signs of becoming generally more conservative:in the very same survey panelists were disposed to accept once-vilified usagessuch as the employment ofcontact and host as verbs. · It seems that this use ofhopefully has been made a litmus test, which distinguishes writers who take an active interest in questions of grammar or usage from the great mass of people who keep their own linguistic counsel.No one can be blamed who useshopefully in blithe ignorance of the critics' disdain for it, since the rule could not be derived from any general concern for clarity or precision.But writers who are aware of the critical controversy face a more delicate decision.Some will simply flout the rule,seeing no reason that they should be deprived of a useful construction.Others may choose to avoid the usage,whether they are motivated by discretion or civility. ·Like other sentence adverbs such asbluntly and happily, hopefully may occasionally be ambiguous. In the sentenceHopefully, the company has launched a new venture, the word hopefully might be construed as describing the point of view of either the speaker or the subject. Such ambiguities can be resolved either by repositioning the adverb (as inThe company has launched the new venture hopefully ) or by choosing a paraphrase ( One may hope that the company has launched the new venture ). 尽管hopefully 的这一用法在30年前首次通用的时候曾是个时兴词， 但对于广大读者来说它早已失去了俚语或矫饰的色彩。屡经证实的对这一用法的接受反映了对其实用性的普遍默认；而且并不存在其他精确的代用词。有人如果说但愿条约能被批准 ， 便是对条约的命运作了充满希望的预测，反之如果有人说我希望 （或 我们希望 或 希望 ) 条约将会被批准 则表达了对其期望之物的大胆声明。 只有后者可以接从句象但这不大可能 。 也许我们本可以期待当这一用法已变得根深蒂固之后， 对hopefully 的一片反对声可稍事平息。 然而，这一用法的流行似乎反而使批评家们更为坚定。在1969年用法调查使用小组的调查中44%的成员接受这一用法；在最近一次的调查中却只有27%的成员接受。（相比之下，60%的人接受mercifully 在句子 幸好，在对手能够给这一边倒的比分再加上一分之前，比赛就结束了 中的类似用法） 但是并没有任何迹象表明调查小组成员正在普遍变得更保守：在同一次调查中小组成员们倾向于接受被一度废除的某些用法，如把contact 和 host 用作动词看来。 似乎hopefully 的用法已经成了一块试金石， 它把对语法和用法怀有浓厚兴趣的作家和保留着他们自己的语言学顾问的广大民众区分开来。那些全然忽视批评家们的蔑视使用hopefully 的人不该受到指责， 因为规则并不来源于任何对清晰和精确的关注。但是意识到了批评界争议的作者们面对着一个更为微妙的决定。有些人干脆违反规则，他们认为没有理由要失去这么一个实用的结构。另外一些人则选择避免这一用法，无论其动机是出于谨慎还是出于礼貌。象许多其它句中副词如bluntly 和 happily一样，hopefully 经常出现歧义。 在下句 Hopefully, the company has launched a new venture 中， hopefully 一词可以解释为记述说话者的观点或者句中主语的观点。 这种歧义可以通过调换副词位置（如公司已经满怀希望地到办了一个新企业 )或选择另一种说法( 有人希望这个公司已经创办了一个新企业 )来消除 〔Bradford〕American writer whose works, such asJohn Henry (1931), reflect Black folklore. 布拉德福，罗尔科：(1896-1948) 美国作家，其著作，如《约翰·亨利》 （1931年），反映黑人民俗 〔academicism〕Traditional formalism, especially when reflected in art.传统主义，学院派：尤其是反映在艺术上的传统主义〔Brahmanism〕The religious practices and beliefs of ancient India as reflected in the Vedas.婆罗门教：《吠陀经》中所反映的古印度的一种宗教实践或信仰〔James〕American writer and critic whose works generally concern the confrontation of American and European culture. A pioneer in psychologically realistic fiction, he wrote numerous novels, such asThe Bostonians (1886) and The Golden Bowl (1904). 詹姆斯，亨利：(1843-1916) 美国作家和评论家，他的作品一般涉及美国文化与欧洲文化的对立。他是一位从心理学角度反映现实主义小说的先锋，著有大量小说，如《波士顿人》 （1886年）和 《金碗》 （1904年） 〔Zangwill〕British writer and Zionist whose works, including the novelChildren of the Ghetto (1892) and the play Melting Pot (1908), concern the lives of Jewish immigrants. 赞格威尔，以色列：(1864-1926) 英国剧作家和犹太复国主义者，其作品包括小说《犹太区的儿童》 （1892年）和剧本 《熔炉》 （1908年），反映犹太移民的生活 〔Tennyson〕British poet whose works, includingIn Memoriam (1850) and "The Charge of the Light Brigade" (1854), reflect Victorian sentiments and aesthetics. He was appointed poet laureate in 1850. 丁尼生，艾尔弗雷德：(1809-1892) 英国诗人，其作品包括《悼念》 （1850年）和《轻骑兵的责任》(1854年），反映了维多利亚时期的情感和美学思想。1850年他获得桂冠诗人的称号 〔annualize〕To adjust or calculate so as to reflect a rate that is based on a full year:以年计算：以年为单位进行核算或计算，以反映一个以整年为基础的比率：〔valence〕The capacity of something to unite, react, or interact with something else:某物与另一物结合，反映，或互相作用的能力：〔Chicago〕American artist best known forThe Dinner Party (1979), a ceramic and needlepoint project depicting the social history of women in the Western world. 芝加哥，朱迪：(生于 1939) 美国艺术家，最有名的作品是《晚餐会》 （1979年），作品以一件陶瓷器和针绣制品反映了西方世界妇女的社交历史 〔Freeman〕American historian noted for his works on the Civil War and his biographyGeorge Washington (1948-1957), which won a Pulitzer Prize. 弗里曼，道格拉斯·绍索尔：(1886-1953) 美国历史学家，因其反映内战的作品及赢得普利策奖的传记《华盛顿》 （1948-1957年）而知名 〔Waugh〕British writer whose satirical novels, such asDecline and Fall (1928) and Vile Bodies (1930), lampoon high society. His later works, notably Brideshead Revisited (1945), reflect his interest in Roman Catholicism. 沃，伊弗琳（阿瑟·圣约翰）：(1903-1966) 英国作家，其讽刺小说，如《衰落与瓦解》 （1928年）和 《邪恶的肉体》 （1930年）讽刺了上层社会。他的晚期作品，著名的 《旧地重游》 （1945年）反映了他对罗马天主教的兴趣 〔coffee〕Would one be as ready to drinkchaoua, kauhi, or coffa as coffee ? Most of these exotic early forms of our word reflect the factthat coffee, though a normal accompaniment to the life of many English speakers, was originally an exotic substance.Coffee came to Europe from the Middle East, where its name wasqahveh, an Ottoman Turkish pronunciation of Arabicqahwah, the Turks having borrowed the word and the drink from the Arabs.The first three forms cited above show the influence of the Middle Eastern words for coffee.Our formcoffee results from combining caffè, the Italian version of the Middle Eastern word, and the vowel of the Middle Eastern word, represented by o. Coffee is first recorded in English in 1601 with the spelling coffe. 人们愿意喝chaoua, kauhi 或 coffa ，就如 coffee 一样吗？ 我们言语的这些早期外来形式大多反映这一事实：咖啡虽然常伴随着许多说英语的人的生活，但它是来源于国外的东西。咖啡从中东传到欧洲，在中东它的名称是qahveh ， 阿拉伯的奥斯曼土耳其人发音为qahwah 。 土耳其人自阿拉伯借用该单词和饮料。上面引用的前三个形式表明中东话对咖啡这个单词的影响。我们的形式coffee ，得自结合中东单词的意大利的 caffe 和中东单词中用 o字母表示的元音字母。 Coffee在英国于1601年首次被记载，拼作 coffe. 〔accompany〕The picture shows the party chairperson escorting the candidate through the crowd.这张图片反映了党的主席陪同候选人通过人群。〔Laing〕British writer and psychiatrist. His works, includingThe Politics of Experience (1967) and The Facts of Life (1976), explore psychosis as a reaction to a dehumanized, irrational society. 兰恩，罗（拉德）·戴（维）：(1927-1989) 英国作家和医生。其著作包括《经验的策略》 （1967年）和 《生命的真谛》 （1976年），探索作为对丧失人性的不规则的社会反映的精神分裂症 〔palimpsest〕An object, a place, or an area that reflects its history:反映历史的物体、地方或地区：〔Ade〕American humorist whose newspaper columns, plays, and books, such asFables in Slang (1899), reflect the humor and common sense of ordinary people. 艾德，乔治：(1866-1944) 美国幽默作家，其报纸专栏，戏剧以及书籍，例如《俚语寓言故事》 （1899年），反映了普通人的幽默感及见识 〔quality〕"From now on an artist will be judged only by the resonance of his solitude or the quality of his despair" (Cyril Connolly). “如今艺术家只能从他对孤独的反映或失望的程度来判断” （西里尔·康纳里）。 〔Shahn〕Lithuanian-born American artist whose works, such asThe Passion of Sacco and Vanzetti (1931-1932), reflect social and political themes. 沙恩，本杰明：(1898-1969) 立陶宛裔美国艺术家，其作品如《萨柯和万泽蒂的受难图》 （1931-1932年），反映了社会与政治主题 〔limen〕The threshold of a physiological or psychological response.阈限：生理或生理反映的下限〔Blunden〕British writer primarily known for his poetry and the prose workUndertones of War (1928), reflections on his World War I experiences. 布兰登，埃德蒙·查尔斯：(1896-1974) 英国作家，因诗歌和反映其在第一次世界大战中经历的散文集《战争的低调》 （1928年）而闻名 〔automatic〕The wordsautomatic pilot or automatic transmission bring to mind mechanical devices that operate with minimal human intervention. Yet the wordautomatic, which goes back to the Greek word automatos, "acting of one's own will, self-acting, of itself,” made up of two parts,auto-, "self,” and -matos, "willing,” is first recorded in English in 1748 with reference to motions of the body, such as the peristaltic action of the intestines: "The Motions are called automatic from their Resemblance to the Motions of Automata, or Machines, whose Principle of Motion is within themselves.”Although the writer had machines in mind,automatic could be used of living things, a use we still have, although not the primary one. The association ofautomatic chiefly with machinery may represent one instance of many in which we have come to see the world in mechanical terms. 这些单词automatic pilot 或 automatic transmission 带给我们只需最小人力介入即可操作的机械装置的意识。 但这个词automatic， 追溯至希腊单词 automatos， “以个人自身的意志行动，自我行动，” 由两部分组成，auto-， “自我的，”和 -matos， “意愿，” 以作为身体运动的含义于1748年首次记录于英语，如体内的肠蠕动： “这些运动被称为身体内自动的运动，是与机器运动的相似性得出的，其运动原理在于其自身内部。”虽然作者头脑中有机器印象，automatic 可以被用于生物，这种用法虽然不是基本的，但我们仍在使用。 主要将automatic 与机器相联系可能反映了我们眼中的世界越加机械化的情况 〔culture〕The books and paintings in her library reflect her considerable cultivation.她的图书馆内的书和画反映了她有相当程度的修养。〔Foster〕American songwriter whose popular works, such as "Oh! Susannah" (1848) and "Old Folks at Home" (1851), reflect the sentiment of pre-Civil War America.福斯特，斯蒂芬·科林斯：(1826-1864) 美国作曲家，他的一些流行作品如《哦，苏珊娜!》（1848年）和《家园故老》(1851年）都反映了内战前美国人的情绪〔beignet〕New Orleans, Louisiana, has been a rich contributor of French loan words and local expressions to American English.One variety of speech in this city is so distinctive that it has a name:yat. Many of the words, such asbeignet, café au lait, faubourg, lagniappe, and krewe, reflect the New World French cuisine and culture characterizing this city and much of southern Louisiana. Other words reflect distinctive physical characteristics of the city:banquette, a raised sidewalk, and camelback and shotgun, distinctive architectural styles found among New Orleans houses. 路易斯安娜州的新奥尔良对法语词汇和当地表达方式溶入美式英语起了很大贡献。这个城市里的语言是如此独特以致人们叫它yat。 许多词如beignet，cafè au lait，faubourg，lagniappe 和 krewe 反映了该城和南路易丝安娜州大部地区的新大陆上法式的烹饪和文化特色。 其它词反映了该城独特的外貌和特征：banquette 高起的人行道， camelback 和 shotgun 新奥尔良房屋的独特建筑形式 〔weighted〕Adjusted to reflect value or proportion:加权的：经过调整可反映其价值或比例的：〔MacLennan〕Canadian writer whose novels, such asTwo Solitudes (1945) and Return of the Sphinx (1967), are literary treatments of Canadian political and social concerns. 麦克里南，休：(生于 1907) 加拿大作家，他的小说，如《两种孤独》 （1945年）和 《凤凰回归》 （1967年）以文学作品的形式反映了加拿大的政治和社会问题 〔tangerine〕The nametangerine is like the skin of an orange, which when peeled off reveals something of interest.The name reflects the geographic source of the fruit, Tangier, Morocco,from which port the first tangerines were shipped to Europe in 1841.The wordtangerine, from Tangier or Tanger, was already an English word (first recorded in 1710), meaning "of or pertaining to Tangier.”This word had been formed with the suffix-ine, as in Florentine. The fruit was first called atangerine orange, later reduced simply totangerine. Confusion exists between the nametangerine and the name mandarin, and with good reason.The tangerine is a type of mandarin orange,so in fact the oranges shipped from Tangier could have been calledmandarins. However, although both names can be used interchangeably in a general sense,there does now exist a particular type of orange calledtangerine as distinguished from another type called specifically mandarin. The mandarin orange, which is native to China,is thought probably to have received its namebecause of its resemblance in color to the robes of a mandarin.单词tangerine 这个名称就好象桔子的皮， 当我们把它剥下来时就会发现有趣的东西。这个名称反映了它所指的水果的地理来源，即摩洛哥的丹吉尔；第一批柑橘就是在1841年从该港口用船运往欧洲的。源于Tangier 或 Tanger 的 tangerine 一词在这时已经是一个英语词汇（它第一次见于文献是在1710年）， 意为“属于或关于丹吉尔的”。这个词是用加后缀-ine 的方法构成的，就象 Florentine 一词的构词法一样。 丹吉尔所产的这种水果一开始被称作tangerine orange ， 后来被简化成tangerine。 在tangerine 和 mandarion 之间一直存在着混淆， 而这种混淆是有原因的。丹吉尔柑橘确为一种中国柑桔种类，所以事实上从丹吉尔运出的那批桔子在当时可能就被称为mandarin 。 然而，尽管这两个名称在一般的使用中是可以互换的，但世界上确实存在着与另一种被称为manderin 的类型不同的一种被称作 tangerine 的桔类。 中国柑桔原产于中国，它之所以被这样命名，可能是因为它的颜色类似清朝的高官所穿的官服的颜色〔agin〕The spelling ofagin reflects both the raised vowel before a nasal consonant, typical of Southern dialects, and a reduced final consonant cluster, typical of several regional varieties.Agin has a wide spectrum of senses in the regional speech of those who pronounce it this way. Indeed, these regional senses are tied to the pronunciation,for standard Englishagainst does not quite capture the full implication of the assertion "I'm agin him" — that is, "opposed to him and all that he stands for.”Another regional sense recalls the original literal Old English sense of "facing; next to" (see the first four senses ofagainst in the Oxford English Dictionary), where standard English would haveby: Their house is agin the mountain.Agin may be used figuratively with regard to time chiefly in South Midland dialects,meaning "by or before (a specified time)”: "I'll be there agin daylight" (North Carolina informant in DARE).词汇agin 的拼写既反映了典型的南部方言──鼻辅音前的元音的提高， 又反映了压缩的后辅音群──几种典型的地方变体的特征。Agin 在它被如此发音的地方方言有广泛的意思。 确实，这些地域意义是和读音联系在一起的，因为标准英语中against 没有完全表达 "I'm agin him" 所隐含的意义── 即“反对他及他所代表的一切。”另外一个地域意义使人想起古英语中最初的文学用语“面对；紧靠着”（参阅《牛津英语词典》中against 的前四个释义）， 而在标准英语中应该用by： 傍山而建的房屋。Agin 主要在中南部方言中可以比喻地用来表示时间，意思是“到或在…（特定时间）前”： “天亮前我可到达” （美国区域英语词典的北卡罗来纳提供资料者）〔knowledge〕Scholarship is the knowledge of a scholarwhose mastery of a particular area of learning is reflected in the scope, thoroughness, and quality of his or her work: Scholarship 是指一个学者的知识，他（她）对某一专门的学术领域的理解可在他（她）著作的视野、深度和质量中得到反映： 〔lifestyle〕A way of life or style of living that reflects the attitudes and values of a person or group:生活方式：反映了某人或某个团体的态度与价值观的一种生活方式或风格：〔reflect〕To form an image of (an object); mirror:反映：形成（物体）的形象；映出：〔unfaithful〕Not justly representing or reflecting the original; inaccurate.不如实的，不确切的：不公平地表现或反映原作的；不准确的〔Whittier〕American poet. His early works, such asVoices of Freedom (1846), reflect his opposition to slavery, but he is best known for his nostalgic poems about New England, including Snow-Bound (1866). 惠蒂埃，约翰·格林利夫：(1807-1892) 美国诗人。其早期作品，如《自由的声音》 （1846年），反映了他对奴隶制的反对,但他最著名的作品是对新英格兰的怀旧诗歌，包括 《大雪封门》 （1866年） 〔Bloch〕Swiss-born American composer noted for his chamber music, such asQuintet for Piano and Strings (1923), and for works with Jewish themes, including Israel Symphony (1916). 布洛克，欧内斯特：(1880-1959) 瑞士裔美籍作曲家，以其室内乐而著名，如《钢琴和弦乐五重奏》 （1923年），和反映犹太人主题的作品，包括 《以色列交响曲》 （1916年） 〔he〕Beginning early in the 20th century, however,the traditional usage has come under increasing criticismfor reflecting and perpetuating gender discrimination. ·Defenders of the traditional usage have argued that the masculine pronounshe, his, and him can be used generically to refer to men and women. This analysis of the generic use ofhe is linguistically doubtful.Ifhe were truly a gender-neutral form, we would expect that it could be used to refer to the members of any group containing both men and women.But in fact the English masculine form is an odd choice when it refers to a female member of such a group.There is something plainly disconcerting about sentences such as 可是从20世纪早期起，传统用法不断受到指责，因为它反映并长久维持性别歧视。传统用法辩护者认为阳性代词he，his 和 him 可以用来指代男人和女人的总称。 有关he 的属性用法的分析， 从语言学角度上来说，是有疑问的。如果he 果真是一个中性形式， 我们猜想它可以用来指代任何包含有男人和女人的群体中的成员。但事实上，在英语中用阳性形式来指代上述一群体中的女性成员构成一种很奇特的选择。如下面这个句子中明显存在使人困窘之处： 〔gauntlet〕In the first and second editions ofThe American Heritage Dictionary Usage Notes explained why the spelling gauntlet is acceptable for bothgauntlet 1 and gauntlet 2. Such has not always been the case.The story ofgauntlet 1, as into throw down the gauntlet, is unexciting: it comes from the Old French wordgantelet, a diminutive of gant, "glove.” From the time of its appearance in Middle English (in a work composed in 1449),the word has been spelled with anau as well as an a, still a possible spelling. But the othergauntlet, as into run the gauntlet, is an alteration of the earlier English formgantlope, which came from the Swedish wordgatlopp, a compound ofgata, "lane,” and lopp, "course.” The earliest recorded form of the English word,found in 1646,isgantelope, showing that alteration of the Swedish word had already occurred. The English word was then influenced by the spelling of the wordgauntlet, "glove,” and in 1676 we find the first recorded instance of the spellinggauntlet for this word, althoughgantelope is found as late as 1836. From then on spellings withau and a are both found. Theau seems to have won out, although one could say that thea is preferable because it reflects the Swedish source.In regard to a word that has been so altered in form,this seems a rather fine point.在第一和第二版的美国经典辞书 的用法说明解释了为什么拼写 gauntlet 是可接受的， 既对于gauntlet 1，又对于 gauntlet 2。 情况并不总是这样。gauntlet 1的故事， 如在拒绝挑战 中并不令人激动： 它来自于一法语老词gantelet ， gant 的小词缀“手套”。 自从它在中古英语出现之后（在1449年编的一著作中），这个词同au 的拼写已同 a 一样仍是可能的拼写形式。 但是另一个gauntlet ， 如在接受挑战 中， 是早期英语形式gantlope 的一个变体， 其来自于一瑞典词gatlopp ， gata “巷子”和 lopp “方向”的组合。 最早的这个英语单词的记录，出现于1646年，是gantelope ，表示这个瑞典单词的变体已出现。 这个英语单词然后被单词gauntlet “手套”的拼写所影响， 在1676年，我们发现了gauntlet 第一个有记录的例子， 尽管gantelope 直到1836年才发现。 此后，带有au 和 a 的拼写形式都被发现过。 au 似乎占优势， 尽管一个人可能说a 更好， 因它反映了瑞典语源。说到一个形式已发生了如此变化的单词，这似乎是个好建议〔natural〕Faithfully representing nature or life.真实呈现的：真实地反映自然界或生活的 |
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