| 单词 | 句子 |
| 释义 | 〔one〕When constructions headed byone appear as the subject of a sentence or relative clause, there may be a question as to whether the verb should be singular or plural.Such a construction is exemplified in the sentenceOne of every ten rotors was found defective. Although the pluralwere is sometimes used in such sentences, an earlier survey found that the singular was preferred by a large majority of the Usage Panel. ·Another problem is raised by constructions such asone of those people who or its variants. In the sentenceThe defeat turned out to be one of the most costly blows that were ever inflicted on our forces, most grammarians would hold that the pluralwere is correct, in as much as the subject of the verb is the plural nounblows. However, constructions of this sort are often used with a singular verb even by the best writers.Note also that when the phrase containingone is introduced by the definite article, the verb in the relative clause must be singular: 当以one 开头的结构作为一个句子或关系从句的主语出现时， 就出现动词用单数还是复数的问题，如用在句子每十个转子中有一个为次品 中的这种结构。 虽然复数were 有时用在这种句子中， 但在一次早期的调查发现用法专题使用小组的大部分成员更倾向于用单数。另一个问题是由象one of those people who 这样的结构及其变化引起的。 在句子The defeat turned out to be one of the most costly blows that were ever inflicted on our forces, 中, 大多数语法学家主张用复数were 是正确的， 以及主要是由于动词的主语是复数名词blow 所致。 然而，这种结构常与单数动词连用，甚至被很有声望的作家采用。也要注意当包含one 的短语被定冠词限制时， 相关的从句中的动词一定要用单数： 〔hardly〕The use ofhardly with a negative is avoided in Standard English. Some critics have been puzzled that adverbs such ashardly, rarely, and scarcely should be treated as negatives in the traditional strictures against double negation, which tars sentences likeI couldn't hardly see him with the same brush as I didn't get none. After all, they argue, the sentenceMary hardly laughed entails that Mary did laugh, not that she didn't,and therefore does not express a negative proposition.Buthardly and scarcely occur with other negative expressions in a number of ways. For one thing, they combine with items such asany and at all, which are characteristically associated with negative contexts: we sayI hardly saw him at all or I never saw him at all but notI occasionally saw him at all; we sayI hardly had any time or I didn't have any time but notI had any time, and so on. Like other negative adverbs,hardly triggers inversion of the subject and auxiliary when it begins a sentence. Thus we sayHardly had I arrived when she left, on the pattern of Never have I read such a book or At no time has he condemned the movement. Such inversion is not used with other adverbs:we would not sayOccasionally has he addressed this question or To a slight degree have they changed their position. The fact is that adverbs such ashardly are semantically negative in that they qualify a state or an event relative to the limiting case of nonoccurrence.Thus the meaning ofhardly is, roughly, "almost not at all"; the meaning ofrarely is "practically never"; and so forth. These adverbs are felt to have a negative component in their meaning,and it should not be surprising that grammarians have reacted to combinations ofhardly with negatives in the same way that they have reacted to combinations of pairs of negatives such as not and none. See Usage Note at double negative ,rarely ,scarcely Hardly 和一个否定词在一起的用法在标准英语中应尽量避免， 一些批评学家一直怀疑象hardly，rarely 和 scarcely 这样的副词在传统的双重否定的句中应被视为否定词， 这样的词使句子象I couldn't hardly see him 和 I didn't get none 一样被弄糟了， 他们争论说，毕竟句子Mary hardly laughed 的意思是玛丽的确笑了， 而不是她没笑，所以不表示否定的建议。但是hardly 和 scarcely 和其他的否定表示一起在许多方面出现， 举例说，他们和象any 和 at all 这样独特的和否定上下文联系的条目组合在一起， 我们说I hardly saw him at all 或 I never saw him at all , 但并不是I occasionally saw him at all； 我们说I hardly had any time 或 I didn't have any time 但不是I had any time 等。 象其它否定副词，hardly 在句子开头时引起主语和助动词的倒装， 于是我们说Hardly had I arrived when she left， 和 Never have I read such a book 或 At no time has he condemned the movement. 等同样的句型。 别的副词并不用这样的倒装：我们不能说Occasionally has he addressed this question 或 To a slight degree have they changed their position 。 事实是象hardly 这样的副词语义上是否定的， 他们限定修饰了与不发生有关的状态或事件。于是hardly 的意思大概是“几乎根本不”； rarely 的意思大概是“实际上没有”；等等。 这些副词在他们的意思里留有否定的成分，语法学家们对hardly 和否定词组合的反应和对一对否定词如 not 和 none组合的反应一样是不足为奇的 参见 double negative,rarely,scarcely〔graffito〕The formgraffiti, based on the Italian plural, is far more common than the singular form graffito. Graffitiis often used as a singular noun. When the reference is to a particular inscription (as inThere was a bold graffiti on the wall ), the formgraffito would be etymologically correct but might strike some readers as pedantic outside an archaeological context.There is no substitute for the singular use ofgraffiti when the word is used as a mass noun to refer to inscriptions in general or to the related social phenomenon. The sentenceGraffiti is a major problem for the Transit Authority Police cannot be rewordedGraffito is . . . (since graffito can refer only to a particular inscription) or Graffiti are . . . , which suggests that the police problem involves only the physical marks and not the larger issue of vandalism.In such contexts,the use ofgraffiti as a singular is justified by both utility and widespread precedent. 基于意大利语的复数形式graffiti 远比单数形式 graffito更普遍。 Graffiti常用作单数名词。 当意指一特定涂鸦物（如在墙上有一处下流的涂鸦 中）， graffito 的形式在词形变化上是正确的， 但可能会在古文化语境外使一些人显得迂腐。graffiti 的单数作物质名词使用来指涂鸦的总称或相应的社会现象时，是没有替代词的。 句子：涂鸦是公共交通警察局遇到的主要难题 ， 不能用Graffito is … 来替换（因为 graffito 只能指一具体的涂鸦）或用 Graffiti are … 来替换， 因其意指警察的问题只涉及存在的标记而不是破坏公物的大问题。在这些语境中，graffiti 作为单数形式的使用是被广泛使用的先例所证实的 〔gay〕The wordgay is now standard in its use to refer to the American homosexual community and its members;in this use it is generally lowercased.Gay is distinguished from homosexual in emphasizing the cultural and social aspects of homosexuality.Many writers reservegay for male homosexuals, but the word is also used to refer to homosexuals of both sexes;when the intended meaning is not clear in the context,the phrasegay and lesbian should be used. Like the other names of social groups that are derived from adjectives (e.g.,Black ), gay may be regarded as offensive when used as a noun to refer to particular individuals, as inThere were two gays on the panel; here a phrase such asgay people should be used instead. But there is no objection to the use of the noun in the pluralto refer to the general gay community,as inGays have united in opposition to the policy. See Usage Note at homosexual 单词gay 其用法已被普遍接受， 指的是美国的同性恋团体及其成员；在这种用法中，它一般小写。Gay 区别于 homosexual， 前者强调同性恋者的文化和社会方面。许多作家把gay 限定于男性同性恋者， 但这个单词也可用于指两种性别的同性恋者，当上下文的言外之意不太明确时，词组同性恋男性和同性恋女性 可以被使用。 就象其他从形容词派生来的社会群体名词一样（如，黑人 ）， gay 如果当作为一个名词使用，指一些特殊的个体时，可能会被认为带有攻击性， 如在There were two gays on the panel； 在此处应该用词组gay people 来代替。 但是并没有人反对其名词的复数形式，指一般的同性恋团体，如句子同性恋者们已经团结起来对抗政策 参见 homosexual〔get〕The use ofget in the passive, as inWe got sunburned at the beach, is generally avoided in formal writing.In less formal contexts, however,the construction does provide a useful distinction in attributing a more active role to its subject than would the corresponding passive withbe. Thus if Jones has committed a flagrant breach of law in order to test a particular statute,the situation might best be described by the sentenceJones got arrested by the police; whereas if Jones did nothing to provoke the police action,the sentenceJones was arrested by the police would be preferred. 在被动语态使用get ， 如我们在海滩上晒黑了 ， 渐渐在正式写作中避免。但在非正式上下文中，这个结构为使其比相应被动形式be 给予其主语更为主动的角色提供了极为有用的区别。 因此，如果琼斯为了验证特殊法律条文而严重违犯了某法律，最好用以下句子来描绘Jones got arrested by the police， 但如果琼斯没有反抗警察的行为，句子Jones was arrested by the police 比较合宜 〔aggravate〕It is sometimes claimed thataggravate should be used only to mean "to make worse" and not "to irritate.” Based on this view it would be appropriate to sayThe endless wait for luggage aggravates the misery of modern air travel, but not It's the endless wait for luggage that aggravates me the most. But the latter use dates back as far as the 17th century and is accepted by 68 percent of the Usage Panel. As H.W. Fowler wrote, "the extension from aggravating a person's temper to aggravating the person himself is slight and natural,and when we are told that Wackford Squeers [in Dickens'sNicholas Nickleby ] pinched the boys in aggravating places we may reasonably infer that his choice of places aggravated both the pinches and the boys.”有时认为aggravate 应当只被用来表示“加重；使恶化”的意思而不表示“使恼火；激怒”。 根据这种观点，The endless wait for luggage aggravates the misery of modern air travel（无休止地等待行李加重了现代飞机旅行的困难） 这个句子是正确的，而 It's the endless wait for luggage that aggravates me the most（无休止地等待行李最为令我恼火） 这一句则不正确。 但是后一种用法可以追溯到17世纪，并且被百分之六十八的用法使用小组成员所接受。正如H·W·福勒写道，“从使一个人的脾气变得更坏到使一个人恼火的延伸是微小和自然的，当我们看到威克福特·斯贵尔斯［出自狄更斯的小说尼古拉斯·尼克尔贝 ］往令人恼火的地方拧孩子们时， 我们可以合理地推断出他所选择的地方既加剧了拧的疼痛又令孩子们大为恼火。”〔withal〕With. Used after its object at the end of a sentence or clause.用，用以。用在句子或从句末尾其宾语之后〔he〕Beginning early in the 20th century, however,the traditional usage has come under increasing criticismfor reflecting and perpetuating gender discrimination. ·Defenders of the traditional usage have argued that the masculine pronounshe, his, and him can be used generically to refer to men and women. This analysis of the generic use ofhe is linguistically doubtful.Ifhe were truly a gender-neutral form, we would expect that it could be used to refer to the members of any group containing both men and women.But in fact the English masculine form is an odd choice when it refers to a female member of such a group.There is something plainly disconcerting about sentences such as 可是从20世纪早期起，传统用法不断受到指责，因为它反映并长久维持性别歧视。传统用法辩护者认为阳性代词he，his 和 him 可以用来指代男人和女人的总称。 有关he 的属性用法的分析， 从语言学角度上来说，是有疑问的。如果he 果真是一个中性形式， 我们猜想它可以用来指代任何包含有男人和女人的群体中的成员。但事实上，在英语中用阳性形式来指代上述一群体中的女性成员构成一种很奇特的选择。如下面这个句子中明显存在使人困窘之处： 〔doubt〕Doubt and doubtful may be followed by clauses introduced by that, whether, or if. The choice among these three is partly guided by the intended meaning of the sentencebut is not cast in stone. Whether normally introduces an indirect questionand is therefore the traditional choice when the subject is in a state of genuine uncertainty about alternative possibilities: Doubt 和 doubtful 后面可以跟由 that，whether， 或 if 引导的从句。 三者之间选哪一个部分地由句子要表达的意义决定的，但其用法并不是固定不变的。 Whether 一般引导一个间接问句，所以当主语所代表的人确实不知如何选择判断时，传统上就用该词： 〔intrigue〕The introduction of the verbintrigue to mean "to arouse the interest or curiosity of" was initially resisted by writerson usage as an unneeded French substitute for available English words such asinterest, fascinate, or puzzle, but it now appears to be well established.Seventy-eight percent of the Usage Panel accepts it in the sentenceThe special-quota idea intrigues some legislators, who have asked a Washington think tank to evaluate it, whereas only 52 percent accepted it in a 1968 survey.意为“激起…的兴趣或好奇心”的动词intrigue 的引入， 最初遭到作家们的抵制，他们认为在用法上没有必要用法语词代替现成的英语词汇，例如interest，fascinate 或者 puzzle， 但是现在它已经被普遍认可。用法专题小组百分之七十八的成员认同它存在于句子特殊配额的意见吸引了一些立法者，他们要求华盛顿智囊团对此进行评价 中， 而在1986年的调查中只有百分之五十二的人同意〔read〕To examine and grasp the meaning of (language in a form other than written or printed characters, words, or sentences):懂得，阅读并了解：检查并掌握（非书面或印刷体段落、文字或句子形式的语言）的意思：〔apodosis〕The main clause of a conditional sentence, asThe game will be canceled in The game will be canceled if it rains. 条件句的结论句：条件句的主句，如The game will be canceled（比赛将取消） 在句子 The game will be canceled if it rains（如果下雨比赛将取消） 中 〔try〕The phrasetry and is commonly used as a substitute for try to, as inCould you try and make less noise? A number of grammarians have labeled the construction incorrect.To be sure, associated with informal style,the usage strikes an inappropriately conversational note in formal writing.In the most recent survey65 percent of the Usage Panel rejected the use in writing of the sentence try and 这一词组通常可用来替代 try to ， 如在你能试着少发出点噪音吗？ 中。 一些语法学家认为这一结构不正确。由于这一用法常用于非正式文体，一旦出现在正式文章中便会产生不相适宜的谈话式情调。在最近的调查中，65%的用法评审委员成员反对它被用于如下的句子： 〔parse〕To break (a sentence) down into its component parts of speech with an explanation of the form, function, and syntactical relationship of each part.语法分析：把（句子）分解成各个组成词类，并从形式、功能和各部分的句法关系上加以说明〔fun〕The use offun as an attributive adjective, as ina fun time, a fun place, most likely originated in a playful reanalysis of the use of the word in sentencessuch asIt is fun to ski, wherefun behaves syntactically like an adjective such as amusing or swell. The usage became popular in the 1950's and 1960's, though there is some evidence to suggest that it has 19th-century antecedents.Certainly the sense of this word makes it particularly susceptible to jocular treatment.But as with other such reanalyses (for example, in the expressiona whole 'nother ), the usage appears to have persisted after the original flavor had been lost.Thus there is no intimation of humorous intent in a press release that announces: fun 作为定语形容词使用， 如一段愉快的时光，一个娱乐场所， 极有可能源于对此词在某些句中用法的玩笑性再分析，如滑雪真好玩 从句法功能来讲， fun 在这里的用法象 amusing 或 swell 之类的形容词。 尽管有证据表明19世纪就出现这种用法了，但开始变得流行却在19世纪50,60年代。当然，此词的这层含义尤令人怀疑对方是否在打趣。但正如其他这类再分析词（例如，在句子a whole 'nother 中一样）， 此用法在最初的含义都失去之后，还一直坚持使用下来。因此当报界发布以下消息时就从中找不出任何滑稽意味了： 〔mix〕"The four sentences of the original are amalgamated into two" (William Minto).“原文中的四个句子被合并成两句” （威廉·明托）。〔who〕The traditional rules that determine the use ofwho and whom are relatively simple: who is used for a grammatical subject, where a nominative pronoun such as I or he would be appropriate, andwhom is used elsewhere. Thus, we writeThe actor who played Hamlet was there, sincewho stands for the subject of played Hamlet; andWho do you think is the best candidate? where who stands for the subject of is the best candidate. But we writeTo whom did you give the letter? sincewhom is the object of the preposition to; andThe man whom the papers criticized did not show up, sincewhom is the object of the verb criticized. ? Considerable effort and attention are required to apply the rules correctly in complicated sentences.To produce correctly a sentence such asI met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite, we must anticipate when we writewhom that it will function as the object of the verb extradite, several clauses distant from it.It is thus not surprising that writers from Shakespeare onward should often have interchangedwho and whom. And though the distinction shows no signs of disappearing in formal style,strict adherence to the rules in informal discourse might be taken as evidence that the speaker or writer is paying undue attention to the form of what is said, possibly at the expense of its substance.In speech and informal writingwho tends to predominate over whom; a sentence such asWho did John say he was going to support? will be regarded as quite natural, if strictly incorrect. By contrast, the use ofwhom where who would be required, as inWhom shall I say is calling? may be thought to betray a certain linguistic insecurity. ? When the relative pronoun stands for the object of a preposition that ends a sentence,whom is technically the correct form: the strict grammarian will insist onWhom (not who ) did you give it to? But grammarians since Noah Webster have argued that the excessive formality ofwhom in these cases is at odds with the relative informality associated with the practice of placing the preposition in final position and that the use of who in these cases should be regarded as entirely acceptable. ? The relative pronounwho may be used in restrictive relative clauses, in which case it is not preceded by a comma, or in nonrestrictive clauses, in which case a comma is required.Thus, we may say eitherThe scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized, where the clausewho discovers a cure for cancer indicates which scientist will be immortalized, orThe mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known, where the clausewho solved the four-color theorem adds information about a person already identified by the phrase the mathematician over there. ? Some grammarians have argued that onlywho and not that should be used to introduce a restrictive relative clause that identifies a person. This restriction has no basis either in logic or in the usage of the best writers;it is entirely acceptable to write eitherthe man that wanted to talk to you or the man who wanted to talk to you. ? The grammatical rules governing the use ofwho and whom apply equally to whoever and whomever. See Usage Note at else ,that ,whose 确定用法的传统规则who 和 whom 相对简单： who 语法上用作主语，同 I 或 he 等主格代词的位置相同， 而whom 用于别处。 这样，我们写The actor who played Hamlet was there （演哈姆雷特的演员在那边）， 因此who 代表的是 played Hamlet 的主语。 在句子Who do you think is the best candidate? （你认为谁是最好的候选人?）中 who 代表 is the best candidate 的主语。 但是我们说To whom did you give the letter? （你把信给谁了?）， 因为whom 是介词 to 的宾语； 在句子The man whom the papers criticized did not show up, （报纸上批评的那个人没有来）， 因为whom 是动词 criticized 的宾语 。在复杂的句子里，正确应用这些规则需要相当的努力和注意。正确地造出如I met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite （我遇到了政府曾努力让法国引渡的那个人）这样的句子， 在写whom 之前我们必须预知它将作动词 extradite 的宾语， 尽管两个词离得很远。这也就难怪自莎士比亚以来的作家经常把who 和 whom 交换使用了。 尽管在正式文体中两者区别仍然存在，但如果在非正式的交谈中严格地遵守这些规则会被认为说话者或作者可能不顾内容而过分注视说话的形式。在口语和非正式书面语中，who 趋向于代替 whom; 人们会认为象Who did John say he was going to support? （约翰说他将支持谁?）这样句子很自然，尽管严格来说它是不正确的。 相反，在应该用who 的地方用 whom 则显出一种语言上的不稳定， 如Whom shall I say is calling? （我说是谁在打电话?）。 当关系代词替代句尾的介词宾语时，whom 在理论上是正确的形势： 严格的语法坚持Whom （而不是 who ) did you give it to?（你把它给谁了？） 但从诺·韦伯斯特以来的语法学家认为whom 在这种情况下过分正式，而把介词放在句尾相对来说又不正式，这就有了矛盾，所以在这种情况下用 who 完全可以接受。 关系代词who 可以用在限定关系从句中，前面不要加逗号， 也可用在非限定关系从句中，则需要加逗号。所以我们既可以说The scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized （发现治愈癌症的方法的科学家将会因此而不朽）， 在此处从句who discovers a cure for cancer 指这样的科学家将会不朽， 也可以说The mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known （在那边的数学家非常出名，他解决了四色定理）， 从句who solved the four-color theorem 给已经由短语 the mathematician over there 确定了的人增加了一些有关他的信息。 有些语法学家认为只有who 而不是 that 可以连接表示人的限定性关系从句。 这种限制在逻辑上没有根据，在最优秀作家的用法中也未有根据；无论说the man that wanted to talk to you （想要跟你说话的那个人）或 the man who wanted to talk to you 都是完全可以接受的。 有关who 和 whom 的语法规则同样适用于 whoever 和 whomever 参见 else,that,whose〔each〕The traditional rule holds thatwhen the subject of a sentence begins witheach, it is grammatically singular,and the verb and following pronouns must be singular as well: 传统规则规定，当句子的主语以each 开始时， 语法上讲是单数形式，所以动词及相应的代词也必须使用单数形式： 〔participle〕The "dangling participle" is quite common in speech,where it often passes unremarked;but its use in writing can lead to unintentional absurdities,as in He went to watch his horse take a turn around the track carrying a copy of the breeders' guide under his arm. Even when the construction occasions no ambiguity,it is likely to distract the reader,who will ordinarily be operating on the assumption that a participle or other modifying phrase will be associated with the noun phrase that is immediately adjacent to it.Thus the sentenceTurning the corner, the view was quite different would be better rewritten as The view was quite different when we turned the corner or Turning the corner, we saw a different view. · A number of expressions originally derived from active participles are now well established as prepositions of a kind,and these may be used freely to introduce phrases that are not associated with the immediately adjacent noun phrase.Such expressions includeconcerning, considering, failing, granting, judging by, and speaking of. Thus one may writeSpeaking of politics, the elections have been postponed or Considering the hour, it is surprising that he arrived at all. “不连结分词”在口语中十分常见，只是常常被忽略；但它在书面中却会无意地导致语义模糊，如：他胳膊下夹着一本饲养员指南书去看他的马转过跑道的拐弯处。 即使这种结构不会产生语义不清，它也很可能迷惑读者，他们通常会假定分词或其它的修饰性短语会跟其紧接的名词性短语相联系。这样，最好把句子转弯后，景色大为不同 写成 我们一转弯就发现景色大为不同 或 转弯后我们看到景色大为不同。 · 一些最初由主动分词派生出来的表达方式现在已经作为某类介词而被固定下来，这些表达方式可以用来引入一些与紧接的名词短语没有联系的短语，这些表达方式包括concerning，considering，failing，granting，judging by 和 speaking of。 由此我们就可以这样写考虑到政治因素，将选举延期了 或 就时间来说，他在任何情况下到来都令人惊讶 〔permanent〕In this world of impermanenceit seems that we have tried to hold on to a few things at least by using the wordpermanent. Coming ultimately from the present participlepermanēns of Latin permanēre, "to endure,” Middle Englishpermanent (first recorded around 1425) also had to do with the enduring and the stable. When we consider some of the applications of this adjective,as inpermanent press, permanent tooth, we are struck by the relative evanescence of the so-called permanent.But perhaps never more so than in the case of the permanent wave.When asked what this phenomenon was,one journalist wrote in 1932,“(so far as my experience goes): a wave that is anything but permanent.”在这个无常的世界里，看起来我们已经试图保持一些事物，至少通过使用permanent 这个词来保持。 最终来自意为“持久，持续”的拉丁文permanere 的现在分词 permanens， 中世纪英语permanent （大约在1425年首次记录）也与持久和稳固的意思有关。 当我们考虑这个形容词的一些用法时，例如在句子耐久熨压,恒牙 中， 我们便会想到所谓永恒的相对的短暂性。但可能从不会因波浪式发型而想到此。当被问到这种现象是怎么回事时，一个新闻记者于1932年写道：“（以我的经验而言）：卷曲发型恰恰不是永恒的”〔refer〕It is sometimes believed that the phraserefer back is redundant, since the prefixre- means "back,” but the objection is misplaced.In fact, an expression can refer either to something that has already been mentionedor to something that is yet to be mentioned,and the distinction betweenrefer back and refer ahead may thus be required for clarification. For example, the sentenceJones promised that if he was elected to the council, Harris would be made the council president is ambiguous, because the pronounhe may either refer back or refer ahead. See Usage Note at allude ,redundancy 人们有时认为短语refer back 是重复的， 因为前缀re- 意为“过去的，后面的”， 但这一异议是错误的。事实上，一种表达方法可以指已经提到的东西，也可以指即将提到的东西，所以refer back 和 refer ahead 之间的区别可能会要求进行区分。 例如句子琼斯保证如果他被选进委员会，哈里斯将被选为委员会主席 是不明确的， 因为代词他 可以指后面的，也可以指前面的 参见 allude,redundancy〔nonstandard〕The termnonstandard was introduced by linguists and lexicographers to describe usages and language varieties that had previously been labeled with terms such as vulgar and illiterate. Nonstandardis not simply a euphemism but reflects the empirical discoverythat the varieties used by low-prestige groups have rich and systematic grammatical structuresand that their stigmatization more often reflects a judgment about their speakersrather than any inherent deficiencies in logic or expressive power.Note, however, that the use of nonstandard forms is not necessarily restricted to the communities with which they are associated in the public mind.Many educated speakers freely use forms such ascan't hardly or ain't I to set a popular or informal tone. · Some dictionaries use the termsubstandard to describe forms, such asain't, associated with uneducated speech, while reservingnonstandard for forms such as irregardless, which are common in writingbut are still regarded by many as uneducated.Butsubstandard is itself susceptible of disparaging interpretation, and most linguists and lexicographers now use onlynonstandard, the practice followed in this Dictionary.词条nonstandard 被语言学家和词典编辑人引进用来描述以前已被词条，例如 vulgar 和 illiterate归类的用法和语言种类。 Nonstandand不只是委婉的说法， 而且反映了凭经验得到的发现：被具有权威的群体所用的语种有丰富而且系统的语法结构，而且这些误解被轻蔑描绘更经常地反映了对其说话者的判断，而不是对任何天生的逻辑和表达力的缺乏。然而，要注意，非标准语形式的运用并不必要限制于在公众心目中与其所联系的团体。许多受过教育的说话者自由地用这些形式如can't hardly 或者 ain't I 说流行或非正式的句子。 有些字典用substandard 来描述此类形式， 如ain't， 并与未受教育的言语相联系， 而同时保留nonstandard 用来形容 irregardless 这一类形式， 这些形式普遍用于写作中，但仍被许多人认为是未受教育的用法。但是substandard 本身很容易引起贬低含义的翻译， 大多数语言学家和词典编辑现在只用nonstandard， 在此词典后边有练习〔cohort〕The use ofcohort to refer to an individual rather than a group has gained considerable currency in recent years, and seems now to be the predominant usage.Seventy-one percent of the Usage Panel accepts the sentence 使用cohort 来指个别的而不是一群的在近年已很流行， 现在似乎已大量地使用。百分之七十一的用法专题使用小组成员接受这个句子 〔quote〕As a transitive verbquote is appropriately used to describe the use of an exact wording drawn from another source. When the original source is paraphrased or alluded to,the more general termcite is usually preferable. · The nounquote is well established as a truncation of quotation, though many critics regard it as unduly journalistic or breezy.As such, it is best avoided in formal literary discussions.The use of the noun was acceptable to only 38 percent of the Usage Panel in the sentenceHe began the chapter with a quote from the Bible. But the usage is less objectionable in informal contexts or in reference to less august sources;the word was acceptable to 53 percent of the Panel in the sentenceHe lightened up his talk by throwing in quotes from Marx Brothers movies. · The nounquote is sometimes used as a synonym for "dictum, saying,” as inHis career is just one more validation of Andy Warhol's quote that "in the future, everybody will be famous for fifteen minutes.” This example was unacceptable to 76 percent of the Usage Panel.作为一个及物动词，用quote 一词来指从另一出处中抄取完全一样的用语是很恰当的。 当原文出处被意译或是间接提及时，一个意义更广泛的词cite 更可取。 quote 这名词形式是由 quatation 削减而来，也已被普遍接受， 虽然许多批评家认为这个词染有不恰当的记者文风或不太正式。因此，在正式的文学讨论中最好避免使用。在用法专题使用小组的调查中，只有38%的人认为这个名词在这章的开始他引用了《圣经》中的一段 文字 这个句子中的用法是可行的。 但在不正式的语境下或提及的出处不很严肃时，对于这种用法的反对意见要少一些。在他插入了一段引自马克斯兄弟电影中的 话 来活跃谈话气氛 这个句子中， 53%的小组成员认为这个词可以接受。 Quote 这个名词有时也可用作“格言、名言”的同义词， 如在他的一生再一次证实了安迪·霍尔的 格言 “将来，每个人都将享有十五分钟的知名度” 这个句子中， 用法专题使用小组中76%的成员认为这个例句无法接受〔transpose〕transpose the words of a sentence.See Synonyms at reverse 把句子中的词序调换一下 参见 reverse〔lay〕Lay ("to put, place, or prepare") and lie ("to recline or be situated") are frequently confused. Lay is a transitive verb and takes an object. Lay and its principal parts ( laid, laying ) are correctly used in the following examples: Lay （“放、安置或准备”）和 lie （“躺下或位于”）两词经常被混淆。 Lay 是一及物动词，能接宾语。 在以下的例子中，lay 及它的分词形式（ laid，laying ）在下列句子中的用法是正确的： 〔period〕A sentence of several carefully balanced clauses in formal writing.复合句：正式文体中包括若干从句的结构匀称的句子〔verbalism〕A wordy phrase or sentence that has little meaning.赘语：无意义的施沓冗长的短语或句子〔than〕Used to introduce the second element or clause of an unequal comparison:比：用于引入不相等比较的第二成份或句子：〔anesthesia〕The following passage, written on November 21, 1846, by Oliver Wendell Holmes,a physician-poet and the father of the Supreme Court justice of the same name,allows us to pinpoint the entry ofanesthesia and anesthetic into English: "Every body wants to have a hand in a great discovery. All I will do is to give you a hint or two as to names—or the name—to be applied to the state produced and the agent. The state should, I think, be called ‘Anaesthesia’ [from the Greek word anaisthēsia, "lack of sensation"]. This signifies insensibility . . . The adjective will be ‘Anaesthetic.’ Thus we might say the state of Anaesthesia, or the anaesthetic state.”This citation is taken from a letter to William Thomas Green Morton,who in October of that year had successfully demonstrated the use of ether at Massachusetts General Hospital in Boston.Althoughanaesthesia is recorded in Nathan Bailey's Universal Etymological English Dictionary in 1721, it is clear that Holmes really was responsible for its entry into the language.TheOxford English Dictionary has several citations for anesthesia and anesthetic in 1847 and 1848, indicating that the words gained rapid acceptance.下面是奥立佛·万德·霍姆斯写于1846年11月21的一段话。作者是个诗人医生和与其同名的最高法庭法官的父亲。这段话能使我们断定anesthesia 和 anesthetic 进入英语的背景： “每个人都希望能够参与一次伟大的发现。我所要做的是告诉你一两个提示去命名，或能被应用于某种状态的名称。我认为这种状态应该被叫做Anaesthesia ［从希腊词anaisthesia “感觉缺失”发展而来］。 这个词表示无感觉…其形容词应该是‘Anaesthetic’。这样我们可以说感觉缺失的状态或感觉缺失”。这段话是从寄给威廉·托马斯·格林·莫顿的一封信上摘录下的，莫顿同年十月在波士顿的马萨诸塞总医院曾成功使用了醚。尽管南森·巴利于1721年把anaethesia 选入了 通用英语词源词典 ， 但是很显然是霍姆斯首先把这个词引入英语。牛津英语词典 上有几处引用了1847年和1848年有 anesthesia 和 anesthetic 的句子， 说明这两个词很快就被人们所接受〔only〕When used as an adverb,only should be placed with care to avoid ambiguity. Generally this means havingonly adjoin the word or words that it limits. Variation in the placement ofonly can change the meaning of the sentence, as the following examples show: 当only 用作副词时应注意避免意义模糊。 一般来说，这意味着把only 放在被限定词的旁边。 Only 的位置的改变， 会改变整个句子的内容，例如： 〔bad〕Bad is often used as an adverb in sentences such asThe house was shaken up pretty bad orWe need water bad. This usage is common in informal speechbut is widely regarded as unacceptable in formal writing.In an earlier survey,the sentenceHis tooth ached so bad he could not sleep was unacceptable to 92 percent of the Usage Panel. · The use ofbadly with want, once considered incorrect,is now entirely acceptable: Bad 在句子中常用作副词， 如这座房子摇晃得很厉害， 或是我们非常需要水。 在非正式演讲中这一用法很普遍，但在正式书面语中广泛地被认为不能接受。在早期的调查中，句子他牙疼得厉害以致睡不着觉。 对于92%的用法小组成员来说是不能接受的。badly 和 want 连用的用法， 曾经被认为是不正确的，现在则完全被接受： 〔complex〕Consisting of an independent clause and at least one other independent or dependent clause. Used of a sentence.复合句的：包含一个独立主句和至少一个独立或非独立从句的。用于句子〔verbigeration〕Obsessive repetition of meaningless words and phrases, especially as a symptom of mental illness.言语重复症：过度地重复无意义的词或句子，尤指精神病的前兆〔pangram〕A sentence that uses all the letters of the alphabet.全字母短句：使用字母表中所有字母的句子〔only〕Placement ofonly earlier in the sentence, immediately after can, would serve the rhetorical function of warning the reader that a condition on the statement follows.See Usage Note at not Only 的位置紧跟在 can 的后边且在句子开头， 可以利用倒装句型提醒读者后边是一个条件 参见 not〔responsible〕Some critics have maintained thatresponsible should not be used to describe things, since only persons can be held accountable.The application to things is justifiable, however, whenresponsible is used to mean "being the source or cause of.” In an earlier survey,a majority of the Usage Panel accepted the sentence 一些批评家坚持认为responsible 不应用于描述事物， 因为只有人才能负担责任。但是当responsible 被用来表示“归因于…”的意思时，用它叙述事物是合理的。 在更早期的调查中，用法专题小组中的大部分成员都接受句子 〔kudos〕Kudos is one of those words like congeries that look like pluralsbut are etymologically singular:correctness requiresKudos is (not are ) due her for her brilliant work on the score. Some writers have tried to defend the use ofkudos with a plural verb, or even the introduction of a new singular form ofkudo, on the grounds that these innovations follow the pattern whereby the English words pea and cherry were re-formed from nouns ending in-s that were thought to be plural. Perhaps the singularkudo would have to be acknowledged as a legitimate formation if it came to be widely adopted in the popular language in the way that cherry and pea have. But at presentkudos is still regarded as a slightly pretentious variant for praise and can scarcely claim to be part of the linguistic folkways of the community.When writers reach for an unfamiliar Greek word for the sake of elegance,it is fair to ask that they get it right.Still, it is worth notingthat even people who are carefulto treat the word syntactically as a singularoften pronounce it as if it were a plural:etymology would require that the final consonant be pronounced as a voiceless (s),rather than as a voiced (z).Kudos 和 congeries 那些词一样， 看上去好象是复数，但从词源上看是单数：因此正确的用法应该是Kudos is （不是 are ） due her for her brilliant work on the score 。 许多作者为kudos 后跟动词复数形式的做法辩护， 他们甚至发明了一个新的词kudo 作为该词的单数形式，他们这样做是以英语单词 pea 和 cherry 的形成模式为依据的， 这些词都是从原先结尾带-s 的复数形式名词演化而来。 kudo 这种单数形式只有在象 cherry 和 pea 这样为大众语言所普遍接受之后才能被认可为一种正确的形式。 但是现在kudos 这个词仍被看作是 praise 这个词稍稍有些做作的变体， 还很难成为社群的习惯用语的一部份。当一个作家为了行文的优雅用一个生僻的希腊词的时候，他应该正确地使用它。但是值得注意的是，即使是那些非常仔细的人，他们在句子中把它用作单数，但在读的时候却读成复数的形式：根据词源来看，这个词最后一个辅音应该发成清辅音（s），而不是浊辅音（z）〔syntactic〕Of or relating to the rules of syntax.句子造句法规则的或与之相关的〔hopefully〕And though this use ofhopefully may have been a vogue word when it first gained currency 30 years ago, it has long since lost any taint of jargon or pretentiousness for the general reader.The well-attested acceptance of the usage reflects an implicit popular recognition of its usefulness;there is no precise substitute.Someone who saysHopefully, the treaty will be ratified makes a hopeful prediction about the fate of the treaty,whereas someone who saysI hope (or We hope or It is hoped ) the treaty will be ratified expresses a bald statement about what is desired. Only the latter could be continued with a clause such asbut it isn't likely. · It might have been expected, then, that the initial flurry of objections tohopefully would have subsided once the usage became well established. Instead, increased currency of the usage appears only to have made the critics more adamant.In the 1969 Usage Panel survey the usage was acceptable to 44 percent of the Panel;in the most recent survey it was acceptable to only 27 percent.(By contrast, 60 percent accepted the analogous use ofmercifully in the sentence Mercifully, the game ended before the opponents could add another touchdown to the lopsided score. ) Yet the Panel has not shown any signs of becoming generally more conservative:in the very same survey panelists were disposed to accept once-vilified usagessuch as the employment ofcontact and host as verbs. · It seems that this use ofhopefully has been made a litmus test, which distinguishes writers who take an active interest in questions of grammar or usage from the great mass of people who keep their own linguistic counsel.No one can be blamed who useshopefully in blithe ignorance of the critics' disdain for it, since the rule could not be derived from any general concern for clarity or precision.But writers who are aware of the critical controversy face a more delicate decision.Some will simply flout the rule,seeing no reason that they should be deprived of a useful construction.Others may choose to avoid the usage,whether they are motivated by discretion or civility. ·Like other sentence adverbs such asbluntly and happily, hopefully may occasionally be ambiguous. In the sentenceHopefully, the company has launched a new venture, the word hopefully might be construed as describing the point of view of either the speaker or the subject. Such ambiguities can be resolved either by repositioning the adverb (as inThe company has launched the new venture hopefully ) or by choosing a paraphrase ( One may hope that the company has launched the new venture ). 尽管hopefully 的这一用法在30年前首次通用的时候曾是个时兴词， 但对于广大读者来说它早已失去了俚语或矫饰的色彩。屡经证实的对这一用法的接受反映了对其实用性的普遍默认；而且并不存在其他精确的代用词。有人如果说但愿条约能被批准 ， 便是对条约的命运作了充满希望的预测，反之如果有人说我希望 （或 我们希望 或 希望 ) 条约将会被批准 则表达了对其期望之物的大胆声明。 只有后者可以接从句象但这不大可能 。 也许我们本可以期待当这一用法已变得根深蒂固之后， 对hopefully 的一片反对声可稍事平息。 然而，这一用法的流行似乎反而使批评家们更为坚定。在1969年用法调查使用小组的调查中44%的成员接受这一用法；在最近一次的调查中却只有27%的成员接受。（相比之下，60%的人接受mercifully 在句子 幸好，在对手能够给这一边倒的比分再加上一分之前，比赛就结束了 中的类似用法） 但是并没有任何迹象表明调查小组成员正在普遍变得更保守：在同一次调查中小组成员们倾向于接受被一度废除的某些用法，如把contact 和 host 用作动词看来。 似乎hopefully 的用法已经成了一块试金石， 它把对语法和用法怀有浓厚兴趣的作家和保留着他们自己的语言学顾问的广大民众区分开来。那些全然忽视批评家们的蔑视使用hopefully 的人不该受到指责， 因为规则并不来源于任何对清晰和精确的关注。但是意识到了批评界争议的作者们面对着一个更为微妙的决定。有些人干脆违反规则，他们认为没有理由要失去这么一个实用的结构。另外一些人则选择避免这一用法，无论其动机是出于谨慎还是出于礼貌。象许多其它句中副词如bluntly 和 happily一样，hopefully 经常出现歧义。 在下句 Hopefully, the company has launched a new venture 中， hopefully 一词可以解释为记述说话者的观点或者句中主语的观点。 这种歧义可以通过调换副词位置（如公司已经满怀希望地到办了一个新企业 )或选择另一种说法( 有人希望这个公司已经创办了一个新企业 )来消除 |
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