| 单词 | 替代 |
| 释义 | 〔substitute〕To take the place of another:用…替代（一个人或一物）：〔who〕The traditional rules that determine the use ofwho and whom are relatively simple: who is used for a grammatical subject, where a nominative pronoun such as I or he would be appropriate, andwhom is used elsewhere. Thus, we writeThe actor who played Hamlet was there, sincewho stands for the subject of played Hamlet; andWho do you think is the best candidate? where who stands for the subject of is the best candidate. But we writeTo whom did you give the letter? sincewhom is the object of the preposition to; andThe man whom the papers criticized did not show up, sincewhom is the object of the verb criticized. ? Considerable effort and attention are required to apply the rules correctly in complicated sentences.To produce correctly a sentence such asI met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite, we must anticipate when we writewhom that it will function as the object of the verb extradite, several clauses distant from it.It is thus not surprising that writers from Shakespeare onward should often have interchangedwho and whom. And though the distinction shows no signs of disappearing in formal style,strict adherence to the rules in informal discourse might be taken as evidence that the speaker or writer is paying undue attention to the form of what is said, possibly at the expense of its substance.In speech and informal writingwho tends to predominate over whom; a sentence such asWho did John say he was going to support? will be regarded as quite natural, if strictly incorrect. By contrast, the use ofwhom where who would be required, as inWhom shall I say is calling? may be thought to betray a certain linguistic insecurity. ? When the relative pronoun stands for the object of a preposition that ends a sentence,whom is technically the correct form: the strict grammarian will insist onWhom (not who ) did you give it to? But grammarians since Noah Webster have argued that the excessive formality ofwhom in these cases is at odds with the relative informality associated with the practice of placing the preposition in final position and that the use of who in these cases should be regarded as entirely acceptable. ? The relative pronounwho may be used in restrictive relative clauses, in which case it is not preceded by a comma, or in nonrestrictive clauses, in which case a comma is required.Thus, we may say eitherThe scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized, where the clausewho discovers a cure for cancer indicates which scientist will be immortalized, orThe mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known, where the clausewho solved the four-color theorem adds information about a person already identified by the phrase the mathematician over there. ? Some grammarians have argued that onlywho and not that should be used to introduce a restrictive relative clause that identifies a person. This restriction has no basis either in logic or in the usage of the best writers;it is entirely acceptable to write eitherthe man that wanted to talk to you or the man who wanted to talk to you. ? The grammatical rules governing the use ofwho and whom apply equally to whoever and whomever. See Usage Note at else ,that ,whose 确定用法的传统规则who 和 whom 相对简单： who 语法上用作主语，同 I 或 he 等主格代词的位置相同， 而whom 用于别处。 这样，我们写The actor who played Hamlet was there （演哈姆雷特的演员在那边）， 因此who 代表的是 played Hamlet 的主语。 在句子Who do you think is the best candidate? （你认为谁是最好的候选人?）中 who 代表 is the best candidate 的主语。 但是我们说To whom did you give the letter? （你把信给谁了?）， 因为whom 是介词 to 的宾语； 在句子The man whom the papers criticized did not show up, （报纸上批评的那个人没有来）， 因为whom 是动词 criticized 的宾语 。在复杂的句子里，正确应用这些规则需要相当的努力和注意。正确地造出如I met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite （我遇到了政府曾努力让法国引渡的那个人）这样的句子， 在写whom 之前我们必须预知它将作动词 extradite 的宾语， 尽管两个词离得很远。这也就难怪自莎士比亚以来的作家经常把who 和 whom 交换使用了。 尽管在正式文体中两者区别仍然存在，但如果在非正式的交谈中严格地遵守这些规则会被认为说话者或作者可能不顾内容而过分注视说话的形式。在口语和非正式书面语中，who 趋向于代替 whom; 人们会认为象Who did John say he was going to support? （约翰说他将支持谁?）这样句子很自然，尽管严格来说它是不正确的。 相反，在应该用who 的地方用 whom 则显出一种语言上的不稳定， 如Whom shall I say is calling? （我说是谁在打电话?）。 当关系代词替代句尾的介词宾语时，whom 在理论上是正确的形势： 严格的语法坚持Whom （而不是 who ) did you give it to?（你把它给谁了？） 但从诺·韦伯斯特以来的语法学家认为whom 在这种情况下过分正式，而把介词放在句尾相对来说又不正式，这就有了矛盾，所以在这种情况下用 who 完全可以接受。 关系代词who 可以用在限定关系从句中，前面不要加逗号， 也可用在非限定关系从句中，则需要加逗号。所以我们既可以说The scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized （发现治愈癌症的方法的科学家将会因此而不朽）， 在此处从句who discovers a cure for cancer 指这样的科学家将会不朽， 也可以说The mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known （在那边的数学家非常出名，他解决了四色定理）， 从句who solved the four-color theorem 给已经由短语 the mathematician over there 确定了的人增加了一些有关他的信息。 有些语法学家认为只有who 而不是 that 可以连接表示人的限定性关系从句。 这种限制在逻辑上没有根据，在最优秀作家的用法中也未有根据；无论说the man that wanted to talk to you （想要跟你说话的那个人）或 the man who wanted to talk to you 都是完全可以接受的。 有关who 和 whom 的语法规则同样适用于 whoever 和 whomever 参见 else,that,whose〔metasomatism〕The process by which the chemical composition of a rock is changed by interaction with fluids; replacement of one mineral by another without melting.交代变化，换质（作用）：岩石的化学成分通过与液体相互作用而发生变化的过程；一种矿物不经熔化被另一种矿物替代〔vicarial〕Serving in the place of someone or something else.代理人的，替代的：代替某人或某物服务的〔leave〕Leave alone is acceptable as a substitute for let alone in the sense "to refrain from disturbing or interfering.” The following examples were approved by a majority of the Usage Panel in an earlier survey: Leave alone 在用作“防止干搅或干扰”这一意义时，可以替代 let alone 。 在早期进行的用法调查中，大多数人都认可以下的例句： 〔stuntwoman〕A woman who substitutes for a performer in scenes requiring physical daring or involving physical risk.特技女演员：在需要胆量或有生命危险的场景中替代演员的女性特技演员〔artificial〕Simulated refers to what is made to resemble or substitute for another often costlier substance: Simulated 指生产出一种相象的或替代另一种经常是昂贵的东西： 〔thusly〕Thusly was introduced in the 19th century as an alternative for thus in sentences such asHold it thus or He put it thus. The increasingly literary character of such uses ofthus may have facilitated coinage of the new adverbthusly, particularly by poorly educated speakers who were straining for a stylish effect.Early citations for the word indicate clear association with rustic or illiterate speech,and though the word has subsequently gained some currency in educated usage,it is still widely regarded as incorrect.In an earlier surveythe use of the word was judged unacceptable by a large majority of the Usage Panel.In formal writingthus can still be used as in the examples above; in other styles,expressions such asthis way and like this are more natural. Thusly 在19世纪时被作为 thus 的替代语使用， 如用在 Hold it thus 或 He put it thus 等句中。 thus 这些用法日益具有书面语的特点， 这可能促成了一个新的副词thusly 的产生， 这对那些受教育程度不高但又尽量追求文采的人尤其有用。这个词的早期引用清楚地表明了它与乡村或文盲语言的联系，尽管后来它在受教育的人中得以一定传播，但仍被普便认为是一种不正确的用法。早期进行的一次调查中，用法委员会小组绝大多数都认为这个词的使用是不能接受的。在正式的文字中，thus 这个词仍然能用于上面所举的例子； 在其它风格的作品中，this way 和 like this 等表达方式更为普遍 〔larky〕"The filmmakers replace characterization with larky pop-culture references and associations"(David Denby)“制片人们用愚蠢的大众文化范畴来替代影片的人物创造”(戴维·登比)〔estrange〕These verbs refer to disruption of a bond of love, friendship, or loyalty.Estrange and alienate are often used with reference to two persons, such as a husband and wife, whose harmonious relationship has been replaced by hostility or indifference: 这些动词是指对爱情、友谊和忠实的背叛。Estrange 和 alienate 经常被用于两个人的时候， 例如丈夫与妻子的合谐、融洽关系已经被敌意和分歧替代： 〔Dixie〕"If you think mass transportation is going to replace the automobile I think you're whistling Dixie"(Henry Ford II)“如果你认为大众交通工具可以替代小汽车，那么我就会认为你是想入非非”(亨利·福特II)〔indicia〕Markings on bulk mailings used as a substitute for stamps or cancellations.邮戳：包裹上替代邮票和注销记号的标记〔able〕 It should be avoided when such an ascription is unwarranted, as with passive constructions involving forms of the verbbe; thus it is inconsistent to sayThe problem was able to be solved through the method she had learned about in business school, since this sentence ascribes no capacity or ability to the problem itself.In such cases,can or could can usually be substituted: The problem could be solved . . . By contrast, passives withget ascribe a more active role to their subjects, and here theable to construction can be used: 当这种起因并非必要时，则被动态中用到动词be应避免使用这词组， 因此这问题可用她在商业学校中学到的方法来解决 的说法是矛盾的， 其原因是这个句子并未将某种能力归因于问题本身。在这种情况下，通常可使用can 或 could 来替代： 这问题可以被解决… 。相反，带get 的被动态表示一个更为能动的主语， 这样able to 结构就可以用为： 〔thine〕Used instead ofthy before an initial vowel or h : 你：过去用于替代始元音前的thy 或 h ： 〔novation〕Substitution of a new obligation for an old one.更新：新契约对旧契约的替代〔tertiary〕Of or relating to salts of acids containing three replaceable hydrogen atoms.三代的：属于或关于含有三个可被替代的氢原子的各种酸盐的〔ventilation〕The replacement of stale or noxious air with fresh air.通风处：用新鲜空气替代污浊或有害的空气〔same〕The expressionssame and the same are sometimes used in place of pronouns such as it or one, as inWhen you have filled out the form, please remit same to this office. As this example suggests, the usage is associated chiefly with commercial and legal language,and some critics have suggested that it should be reserved for such contexts.But though the usage often does sound stilted,it occurs with some frequency in informal writing, particularly in the phraselack of same, as inIt is a question of money, or lack of same. And blind conformity to the critical injunction would have deprived us of the famously laconic radio message sent by a U.S. Navy officer during World War II: Same 和 the same 这两个表达法有时用作代词以替代 it 或 one， 如句子When you have filled out the form，please remit same to the office（填完表格后请提交给办公室）。 正如这个例子所表示的，这种用法主要出现于商业和法律用语，有些评论家认为应当把这种用法限制于此。尽管这种用法常听起来不太自然，但它有时也会出现在非正式的书面语中，特别是在短语lack of the same 中， 如句子It's a question of money，or lack of same。 并且，如果盲目地遵从评论家的禁令，我们将不会听到二次世界大战期间以简洁著称的美国海军军官的无线电口令： 〔abbreviation〕A shortened form of a word or phrase used chiefly in writing to represent the complete form, such asMass. for Massachusetts or USMC for United States Marine Corps. 简写字，缩略语：单词或片语缩短后的形式，主要用于在书面语中表示完整形式，如用Mass. 替代 Massachusetts， 或用 USMC 替代 United States Marine Corps. 〔Philistine〕It has never been good to be a Philistine.Samson, Saul, and David in the Bible helped bring the Philistines into prominence because they were such prominent opponents.Even though the Philistines have long since disappeared,their name has lived on in the Old Testament.The English name for them,Philistines, which goes back through Late Latin and Greek to Hebrew, is first found in Middle English,wherePhilistiens, the ancestor of our word, is recorded in a work composed before 1325. Beginning in the 17th centuryphilistine was used as a common noun usually in the plural to refer to various groups considered the enemy,such as literary critics.In Germany in the same centuryit is said that in a memorial at Jena for a student who had been killed in a town-gown quarrel,the minister preached a sermon from the text "Philister über dir Simson! [The Philistines be upon thee, Samson!],”the words of Delilah to Samson after she attempted to render him powerless before his Philistine enemies.From this usage it is said that German students came to usePhilister, the German equivalent of Philistine, to denote nonstudents and hence uncultured or materialistic people.Both usages were picked up in English in the early 19th century.做非利士人从来没有好处。《圣经》中的参孙、索尔和大卫使非利士人出名是因为他们是很优秀的对手。尽管非利士人已消失很久了，他们的名字却仍存在于《旧约》当中。他们的英文名称Philistines 可由晚期拉丁语和希腊语追溯到希伯来语， 是在中世纪英语中首先发现的，其中我们所用词的前身Philistines 记载在一部1325年前的著作中。 17世纪以来，Philistine 被用作普通名词并且常以复数形式出现， 意指被认为是敌人的各种团体，如文学批评家。在同一世纪的德国，据说在耶拿举行的纪念一名在市民和大学生争执中被杀的学生的纪念会上，牧师从“［非利士人比你强，参孙!］”中选取了一段做布道，就是迪莱勒在试图使参孙在他的非利士手面前变得软弱无力后说的那些话。这段话的用法中可见德国学生开始使用philister 作为 philistine 的德语替代语， 意指不是学生因此也就是没有文化以及不务实的人。这两种用法在19世纪早期的英语中均能找到〔vicarial〕Acting as or having the position of a vicar.牧师职位的：替代或具有教区主教职位的〔former〕Grammarians have often insistedthat the phrasesthe former and the latter should be used only to refer to the first of two things and the second of two things, respectively: 语法家们经常坚持认为，the former 和 the latter 应该只用于分别替代两件事中的第一件和第二件： 〔displace〕To take the place of; supplant.取代…的位置；替代〔backstop〕To substitute for (another) in an emergency.替代：在紧急情况中替代（另一个）〔pant〕It would seem unlikely that the name of a 4th-century Roman Catholic saint should be the ultimate source of a word for a modern article of clothing commonly worn by both men and women.Pants, however, can be traced back to Pantaleon, the patron saint of Venice. He became so closely associated with the inhabitants of that citythat the Venetians became popularly known asPantaloni. Consequently, among the commedia dell'arte's stock characters the representative Venetian (a stereotypically wealthy but miserly merchant) was calledPantalone. His name in French,Pantalon, was borrowed into English (first recorded around 1590). During the middle of the 17th centurythe French came to identify him with one particular style of trousers,and this same style became known aspantaloons in English. Pantaloons was later applied to another style of trousers that came into fashion toward the end of the 18th century, tight-fitting garments that had begun to replace knee breeches.After thatpantaloons was used to refer to trousers in general. The last step in the development of the wordpants met with some resistance. This abbreviation ofpantaloon was considered vulgar and, as Oliver Wendell Holmes put it,"a word not made for gentlemen, but ‘gents.’”First found in the writings of Edgar Allan Poe in 1840,pants has replaced the "gentleman's word" in English and has lost all obvious connection to Saint Pantaleon.看起来一位公元4世纪的罗马天主教徒的名字似乎不可能是这个做为男人和女人平常都穿的布做的现代物品的根本词源。Pants 但可以追溯到奥塔莱昂，威尼斯的庇护神。 他变得与这座城市里的居民联系得这样紧密，以至于威尼斯人也通俗的被称为Pantaloni 。 结果，在即兴喜剧的角色中那个有代表性的威尼斯人（一个愚富而吝啬的商人）被称作Pantalone。 他的法语名字Panlalon 被借用到英语中（初次记录大约在1590年）。 在17世纪中期，法国人开始把它与一种特殊类型的裤子等同起来，同一种类型的裤子在英语中是pantaloons 。 Pantaloons 后来被用作另一种类型的裤子并在18世纪末日渐流行， 紧身衣服已经开始取代齐膝马裤。在那以后，pantaloons 被用来泛指裤子。 在pants 一词发展的最后遇到了一些阻力。 Pantaloon 的缩写被认为是粗俗的， 并且正如奥立弗·温德尔·霍姆斯所说，“并不是为绅士而造的词，而是为‘家伙们所造’”。最早在1840年发现于艾德加·爱伦·坡的作品中，pants 在英语中已经替代了那个“绅士的语言”， 而且显然已失去了和圣奥塔莱昂的一切联系〔challenged〕People who object to the termsdisabled and handicapped as being too negative sometimes propose the substitution of challenged instead, as in referring to persons with physical disabilities as physically challenged. While this particular phrase is quite popular, it is sometimes taken to be condescending, and similar usages such as mentally challenged have failed to win equal acceptance. Indeed, the widespread parody of challenged in such expressions as electronically challenged for "inept at using computers" has effectively eliminated it as an all-purpose alternative to disabled or handicapped. 一些觉得使用disabled 和 handicapped 字眼过于负面的人，偶会以委婉的 challenged 代替，如用 physically challenged 指肢体有缺陷。这个特别词汇的使用相当普遍，因为有时会被视为较谦逊的用法，不过相似用法的接受度不一定相同， mentally challenged 这个用法便无法获得相同的认同。事实上，广为流传的 challenged 谐谑用法如以 electronically challenged（计算机残障） 来形容计算机白痴，已使得其全面替代 disabled 或 handicapped 沦为梦想 〔soymilk〕A milk substitute made from soybeans, often supplemented with vitamins.豆奶：一种由大豆制成的牛奶替代产品，常添加有各种维生素〔stead〕The place, position, or function properly or customarily occupied by another.替代：通常成习惯性地被别人占据的地方、位置或别人所起的作用〔revolution〕The overthrow of one government and its replacement with another.See Synonyms at rebellion 革命：一个政府的颠覆及另一个政府的替代 参见 rebellion〔makeshift〕A temporary or expedient substitute for something else.权宜之计：暂时或临时替代其它事物的东西〔prosthodontics〕The branch of dentistry that deals with the replacement of missing teeth and related mouth or jaw structures by bridges, dentures, or other artificial devices.补牙学：牙科医学的分类，研究用齿床、假牙或其他人工器具替代缺牙和相关的嘴或下额的结构的学科〔alkylation〕A process in which an alkyl group is added to or substituted in a compound, as in the reaction of alkenes with alkanes to make high-octane fuels.烷化作用，烷基取代：向一种化合物中添加或用一个烷基团替代的过程，如用烯烃和烷烃发生反应以制得高辛烷值燃料〔bionic〕Having anatomical structures or physiological processes that are replaced or enhanced by electronic or mechanical components.仿生替代增强：通过电子或机械部件取代或增强的解剖学结构或生理过程的〔impact〕Each generation of critics seems to select one particular usage to stand as the emblem of what they view as linguistic crassness.Thirty years ago it was the use ofcontact as a verb, but opposition to that form has more or less disappeared,and attention now focuses on the verbal use ofimpact meaning "have an effect, affect.” Eighty-four percent of the Usage Panel disapproves of the constructionto impact on, as in the phrasesocial pathologies, common to the inner city, that impact heavily on such a community; and fully 95 percent disapproves of the use ofimpact as a transitive verb in the sentence Companies have used disposable techniques that have a potential for impacting our health. But even these figures do not reflect the degree of distaste with which critics view the usage:in their comments some Panelists labeled the usage as "bureaucratic,” "pretentious,” "vile,” and "a vulgarism.” ·It may be that the particular pretentiousness associated with the verbal use ofimpact is caused by its derivation from an already questionable metaphoric use of the noun impact, as in phrases such asthe political impact of the decision or the impact of the program on the community, in which no more is usually meant than might have been expressed by effects or consequences. But thoughimpact may have begun life a generation ago as an inflated substitute for "affect significantly,” it has by now become so common in corporate and institutional contexts that younger speakers appear to regard it as wholly standard and straightforward usage.Within a few years, accordingly,the usage is likely to be no more objectionable thancontact is now, since it will no longer betray any particular pretentiousness on the part of those who use it.See Usage Note at contact 每一代的批评家好象都挑了一个特别的用法作为他们认为的语言上的愚蠢行为的象征。三十年以前是contact 作为动词的用法， 但是对这种形式的反对或多或少已经消失了，注意力现在集中到了impact 意思为“有不好的影响、影响”的动词用法上。 用法专题小组成员中百分之八十四不同意to impact on 的结构， 如在短语对内城区来说很普通的社会病理学，对这样一个社区产生了很大影响的 当中； 百分之九十五的成员完全不同意impact 在句子 公司已经使用了可能会对我们的健康产生不良影响的易处理技术 中当作及物动词来使用。 但是即使是这些数字也没有反映出批评家们对这种用法厌恶的程度：在他们的评论当中有些成员把这种用法说成是“官僚主义的”、“装腔作势的”，“可耻的”，还说这是“粗鄙的语言。”也许和impact 的动词用法有关联的虚饰成份是由于它是从名词 impact 的一个早有争议的比喻用法衍变而来造成的。 如在短语这个决定在政治上的影响 或者 这个计划对公众的影响 中它的意思并没有比用 effects 或者 consequences 表达出来的意思要多。 尽管impact 作为“明显地影响”的夸大了的替代可能在一代人之前开始产生， 但是现在的年轻一代使用者看上去把它当成了完全标准的、直接的用法，这在共同的和惯例的文章中已经很普遍了。相应地在几年内，这种用法很有可能不比今天的contact 更引起反对， 因为对于那些使用它的人来说这不会再显得有点矫揉造作了 参见 contact〔olestra〕A calorie-free fat substitute synthesized from sucrose and vegetable oil for use in snacks such as potato chips, and capable of passing through the body without being digested.零卡油，人造脂肪：由蔗糖与蔬菜油提炼的零卡替代油，被使用在炸洋芋片等零食的制造上，能通过人体而不被吸收〔vicarious〕Acting or serving in place of someone or something else; substituted.替代的：代替某人或某物活动的或服务的；替代的〔tap〕A thin layer of leather or a substitute applied to a worn-down shoe heel or toe.鞋底：补在穿破了的鞋跟或鞋掌处的一薄层皮革或另一种替代材料〔resolution〕The substitution of one metrical unit for another, especially the substitution of two short syllables for one long syllable in quantitative verse.长音节的拆分或替换：一个韵律元素替代另一个，尤指在数量韵文中用两个短音节替代一个长音节〔cover〕To act as a substitute or replacement during someone's absence:替代：在某人缺席时作为替补或代替：〔bioengineering〕The application of engineering principles to the fields of biology and medicine, as in the development of aids or replacements for defective or missing body organs. Also called biomedical engineering 生物工程：工程原理对生物与医学领域的应用，如在发展对功能障碍或残缺器官的辅助和替代方面的应用 也作 biomedical engineering |
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