| 单词 | 演化 |
| 释义 | 〔phylogeny〕The evolutionary development and history of a species or higher taxonomic grouping of organisms. Also called phylogenesis 动植物种类进化史：生物物种或更高分类组的演化发展和历史 也作 phylogenesis〔kudos〕Kudos is one of those words like congeries that look like pluralsbut are etymologically singular:correctness requiresKudos is (not are ) due her for her brilliant work on the score. Some writers have tried to defend the use ofkudos with a plural verb, or even the introduction of a new singular form ofkudo, on the grounds that these innovations follow the pattern whereby the English words pea and cherry were re-formed from nouns ending in-s that were thought to be plural. Perhaps the singularkudo would have to be acknowledged as a legitimate formation if it came to be widely adopted in the popular language in the way that cherry and pea have. But at presentkudos is still regarded as a slightly pretentious variant for praise and can scarcely claim to be part of the linguistic folkways of the community.When writers reach for an unfamiliar Greek word for the sake of elegance,it is fair to ask that they get it right.Still, it is worth notingthat even people who are carefulto treat the word syntactically as a singularoften pronounce it as if it were a plural:etymology would require that the final consonant be pronounced as a voiceless (s),rather than as a voiced (z).Kudos 和 congeries 那些词一样， 看上去好象是复数，但从词源上看是单数：因此正确的用法应该是Kudos is （不是 are ） due her for her brilliant work on the score 。 许多作者为kudos 后跟动词复数形式的做法辩护， 他们甚至发明了一个新的词kudo 作为该词的单数形式，他们这样做是以英语单词 pea 和 cherry 的形成模式为依据的， 这些词都是从原先结尾带-s 的复数形式名词演化而来。 kudo 这种单数形式只有在象 cherry 和 pea 这样为大众语言所普遍接受之后才能被认可为一种正确的形式。 但是现在kudos 这个词仍被看作是 praise 这个词稍稍有些做作的变体， 还很难成为社群的习惯用语的一部份。当一个作家为了行文的优雅用一个生僻的希腊词的时候，他应该正确地使用它。但是值得注意的是，即使是那些非常仔细的人，他们在句子中把它用作单数，但在读的时候却读成复数的形式：根据词源来看，这个词最后一个辅音应该发成清辅音（s），而不是浊辅音（z）〔kabuki〕A type of popular Japanese drama, evolved from the older No theater, in which elaborately costumed performers, nowadays men only, use stylized movements, dances, and songs in order to enact tragedies and comedies.歌舞伎：一种流行于日本的剧种，从更古老的能乐剧演化而来。剧中有穿着精美戏装的表演者，现在仅限于男演员，用程式化的动作、舞蹈和歌曲展现悲剧和喜剧〔Eddington〕British mathematician, astronomer, and physicist who was an early exponent of the theory of relativity and conducted research on the evolution, structure, and motion of stars.爱丁顿，阿瑟·斯坦利：(1882-1944) 英国数学家、天文学家和物理学家，相对论的早期拥护者，在星体演化、结构和运动方面有很深研究〔preadaptation〕A characteristic evolved by an ancestral species or population that serves an adaptive though different function in a descendant species or population.预适应（性）：类或群体的祖先演化而成的特性，可使其后代形成虽不同但具有适应性的功能〔ilk〕When one usesilk, as in the phrasemen of his ilk, one is using a word with an ancient pedigreeeven though the sense ofilk, "kind or sort,” is actually quite recent,having been recorded no earlier than the end of the 18th century.This sense grew out of an older use ofilk in the phrase of that ilk, meaning "of the same place, territorial designation, or name.” This phrase was used chiefly in names of landed families,Guthrie of that ilk meaning "Guthrie of Guthrie.” "Same" is the fundamental meaning of the word.The ancestors ofilk, Old Englishilca and Middle English ilke, were common words, usually appearing with such words asthe or that, but the word hardly survived the Middle Ages in those uses.当我们使用ilk 一词， 例如在词组men of his ilk 中那样， 我们实际上在使用一个历史悠久的词。不过ilk 这个词有“一种或一类”这个意思， 却是近期的事情，其最早的使用记录不超过18世纪末。过去ilk 这个词用于词组 of that ilk 之中，意为“相同地方的，相同封地的，相同名号的”，现代意义就是从这个意思演化而来。 这个词组主要用于拥有土地的家族的名称前面：Guthrie of that ilk 意指“格思里这个地方叫格思里的人”。 这个词的基本意义为“相同”。ilk 这个词的前身， 古英语的ilca 和中古英语的 ilke 都是常用词汇， 常常和the 或 that 等词一起使用， 不过这些词经过中世纪后都没能存在下来〔phylogenetic〕Relating to or based on evolutionary development or history:与演化发展或历史有关的，或以此为基础的：〔descent〕Development in form or structure during transmission from an original source.发展：演化的过程中在形式或结构上的发展〔interloper〕The wordinterloper comes to us from the days when England was embarking on the course that would lead to the British Empire. Interloper, first recorded in connection with the Muscovy Company, which was the earliest major English trading company (chartered in 1555),was soon being used as well in regard to the East India Company (chartered in 1600).Since these companies were monopolies,independent traders calledinterlopers were not wanted. The term is probably partly derived from Dutch,the language of one of the great trade rivals of the English at that time.Theinter- is simply a use of the prefix inter-, which English has borrowed from Latin,meaning "between, among.”The element-loper is probably related to the same element in landloper, "vagabond,” a word adopted from Dutchlandlooper, with the same sense and composed ofland, "land,” and lōper, from lōpen, "to run, leap.” The wordinterloper, first recorded around 1590, was too useful in a world of busybodies to be restricted to its original specialized senseand came to be used in the extended sense "busybody" in the 17th century.单词interloper 起源于英格兰向大英帝国演化的年代。 有关interloper 的记载最早与曼斯可维公司有联系。 这家公司是英国早期的主要贸易公司（设立于1555年）。随后这词又用于与东印度公司（设立于1600年）有关的方面。因为这两家公司都是垄断企业，因而不需要称interlopers 为独立经营者。 这一词条可能部分来源于荷兰语，当时英国主要贸易对手之一的语言。inter- 只是简单地作为前缀 inter- 使用， 这前缀是英语以拉丁语借用过来的，意为“在…之间，在…当中。”词素-loper 可能与“流浪汉” landloper 中的相同词素有关， 这个词从荷兰语landlooper 吸收过来， 意义不变，由“土地”land 和来自 lopen 意为“跑，跳”的 loper 组成。 interloper 一词最早约记载于1590年， 在充满多事者的世界里极为有用以致于不能局限于其原来的专有意思，在17世纪逐渐使用其引申义“爱管闲事的人”〔seal〕Any of various aquatic, carnivorous mammals of the families Phocidae and Otariidae, found chiefly in the Northern Hemisphere and having a sleek, torpedo-shaped body and limbs that are modified into paddlelike flippers.海豹：任一种海豹科和海狮科的海栖食肉类哺乳动物，主要生活在北半球，有光滑鱼雷形的躯体和已演化为桨状的鳍〔astronomy〕The scientific study of matter in outer space, especially the positions, dimensions, distribution, motion, composition, energy, and evolution of celestial bodies and phenomena.天文学：外层空间事物的科学研究，尤指天体及天文现象的位置、大小、分布、运动、构成、能量及演化的科学〔economy〕Managing an economy has at least an etymological justification.The wordeconomy can probably be traced back to the Greek word oikonomos, "one who manages a household,” derived fromoikos, "house,” and nemein, "to manage.” Fromoikonomos was derived oikonomia, which had not only the sense "management of a houseold or family" but also senses such as "thrift,” "direction,” "administration,” "arrangement,” and "public revenue of a state.”The first recorded sense of our wordeconomy, found in a work possibly composed in 1440, is "the management of economic affairs,” in this case, of a monastery. Economy is later recorded in other senses shared byoikonomia in Greek, including "thrift" and "administration.”What is probably our most frequently used current sense, "the economic system of a country or an area,” seems not to have developed until the 19th or 20th century.管理经济可以从词源上得到确认。economy 一词的来源很可能追溯到希腊文中的 oikonomos 即“管家”， 这又是从oikos 意为“房子”，以及 nemein 意为“管理”两词演化而来。 从oikonomos 派生出的 oikonomia 意思不仅有“家庭管理”， 而且有“节约”、“指示”、“行政”、“安排”及“国家岁入”等含义。Economy 这个词的意思最早记载在约1440年出版的一篇作品上，意思是僧院的“经济事件管理”。 Economy 在此之后记载下来的意思与希腊语的oikonomia 有相似之处， 包括“节约”和“行政”，直到19世纪或20世纪，今天最常用的意思才开始出现，即“国家或地区的经济体系”〔descent〕a paper tracing the descent of the novel from old picaresque tales.追溯古老的传奇故事演化到小说的论文〔tintinnabulum〕We may have little occasion to use the wordtintinnabulum, "a small, tinkling bell,” but it nonetheless teaches us something important about the formation of words.The English word, first used in 1597,was adopted from Latin,in whichtintinnābulum, meaning "a bell,” was derived from the verbtintinnāre, "to make a sound such as a ringing or jangling.” Tintinnāre was in turn derived from tinnīre, "to ring or clang.” Tinnīre is formed by a process called onomatopeia, or the formation of words that imitate what they denote.In the case oftinnīre we can hear the resemblance betweentinn- and a jingle or a ring. The verbtintinnāre was created from tinnīre by a process known as reduplication, in this case meaning thattin- duplicates tinn-. Tintinn- does indeed suggest a jingling, ringing sound.And a tintinnabulum makes such a sound.我们可能很少有机会用到tintinnabulum “一个小的叮铛响的铃”这个词， 但它能够告诉我们一些关于词的构成的一些重要情况。首次使用这个英语词是在1597年，它来源于拉丁文。在拉丁文中，tintinnabulum 的意思是“钟”， 它是从动词tinnare （“发出鸣响或叮铛这样的声音”）衍生而来。 Tintinnare 是从 tinnire （“鸣响或发出铛铛声”）演化而来。 Tinnire 是通过所谓的拟声构词法形成， 也就是词语模仿其所指的东西的构词法。在tinnire 这一实例中， 我们可以听出tinn- 与叮铛或鸣响之间的类似。 动词tintinnare 通过叠词构词法由 tinnire 而来， 就是说tin- 与 tinn-重叠。 Tintinn 的确让人想起这种声音。小铃铛正是发出这样一种声音〔evolution〕A gradual process in which something changes into a different and usually more complex or better form.See Synonyms at development 演变，演化，展开：一事物演变成另一种更复杂、更好状态事物的逐渐转变过程 参见 development〔sanguine〕Perhaps one has wondered what the connection betweensanguinary, "bloodthirsty,” and sanguine, "cheerfully optimistic,” could be. The connection can be found in medieval physiology with its notion of the four humors (blood, bile, phlegm, and black bile).These four body fluids were thought to determine a person's temperament,or distinguishing mental and physical characteristics.Thus, if blood was the predominant humor, one had a ruddy face and a disposition marked by courage, hope, and a readiness to fall in love.Such a temperament was calledsanguine, the Middle English ancestor of our wordsanguine. The sources of the Middle English word were Old Frenchsanguin and Latin sanguineus, the source of the French word. Both the Old French and Latin words meant "bloody,” "blood-colored,”Old Frenchsanguin having the sense "sanguine in temperament" as well. Latinsanguineus in turn was derived from sanguīs, "blood,” just as English sanguinary is. The English adjectivesanguine, first recorded in Middle English before 1350, went on to refer simply to the cheerfulness and optimism that accompanied a sanguine temperament,no longer having any direct reference to medieval physiology.也许有人对sanguinary （“嗜血的”）和 sanguine （“愉快乐观的”）两词之间的联系感到不解。 这种联系可以追溯到中世纪生理学中四种体液的概念（多血质型、胆汁型、黏液型和抑郁型）。这四种体液被认为可决定人的性格，或者能区分出精神和肉体上的特征。因此，如果血液是最主要的体液，一个人就应有红润的脸庞和以勇敢、充满希望、易于陷入情网为特征的性情。这种性情被称为sanguine ， 也就是我们sanguine 一词的中世纪英语的原形。 中世纪英语中该词源于古法语sanguin 一词和拉丁文 sanguineus （法语词的来源）。 在古法语和拉丁文中，该词意思都是“流血的”、“血色的”，古法语sanguin 还含有“生性乐天派的”之意。 拉丁文的sanguineus 也是由 sanguis （“血的”）而来，正如英语中的 sanguinary 一词。 英语形容词sanguine 最初记载于1350年以前的中古英语中， 演化为仅指伴随乐天派性情而具有的愉快和乐观之义，与中世纪生理学没有直接联系〔phylogenetic〕a phylogenetic classification of species.按演化发展对物种进行的分类〔brawl〕an incident that turned into a vicious legal donnybrook;演化成为恶意的法律大混战的事件；〔phylogeny〕The evolutionary development of an organ or other part of an organism:系统发生论：生物的一个器官或其他部分的演化发展：〔mentor〕The wordmentor is an example of the way in which the great works of literature live on without our knowing it. The word has recently gained currency in the professional world,where it is thought to be a good idea to have a mentor, a wise and trusted counselor, guiding one's career, preferably in the upper reaches of the organization.We owe this word to the more heroic age of Homer,in whoseOdyssey Mentor is the trusted friend of Odysseus left in charge of the household during Odysseus's absence. More important for our usage of the wordmentor, Athena disguised as Mentor guides Odysseus's son Telemachus in his search for his father.Fénelon in his romanceTélémaque (1699) emphasized Mentor as a character, and so it was that in French (1749) and English (1750)mentor, going back through Latin to a Greek name, became a common noun meaning "wise counselor,” first recorded in 1750.Mentor is an appropriate name for such a person because it probably meant "adviser" in Greekand comes from the Indo-European rootmen- 1, meaning "to think.”词语mentor 使我们看到了伟大的文学作品是如何在我们毫无察觉的情况下而经久而不衰的。 这个词最近开始在职业界通用起来，在职业界中，能有一个“良师”， 一个忠实而又聪明的顾问来指导你的职业生涯，尤其是你的提升，真不失为一个好办法。这个词来源于荷马英雄时代，在荷马史诗Odyssey 中，孟托是奥德赛的忠实朋友，奥德赛出征时将其留下以掌管家事。 对于我们今天mentor 这个词的用法更为重要的一个事实是， 雅典娜将自己装扮成孟托而引导奥德赛之子忒勒马科斯去寻找他的父亲。费奈隆在他的传奇故事泰雷马克历险记 （1699年）中强调了孟托这一人物， 正因为如此，这一从一个希腊人名经拉丁文演化而来的词mentor 在法语(1749年）和英语(1750年）中成了一个意为“贤明的顾问”的普通名词， 并在1750年被首次记载。Mentor 对于一个贤明的顾问是个合适的名称， 因为它在希腊语中可能有“顾问”之意，而且源自印欧语词根men- 1， 又有“思考”之意〔cosmogony〕The astrophysical study of the origin and evolution of the universe.天体演化学：研究宇宙的起源和演化的一种天体物理学〔phylogeny〕the phylogeny of the amphibian intestinal tract.两栖动物肠道的演化发展〔infant〕Anyone who has ever responded to the cries of a howling infantmay find it difficult to believe the etymology of the wordinfant. The source of our word is the Latin wordīnfāns (stem form, or form to which inflections are added, īnfant- ), meaning "a little child; strictly, one who does not yet speak.”The noun is from the adjectiveīnfāns, meaning "not having the power of speech" and "newly born"and made up of the negative prefixin- and the present participle fāns, "speaking,” of the verbfārī, "to speak.” Latinīnfāns and its Old French descendant enfant could both be used to refer to a speaking child, and the earliest recorded use (around 1384) of their Middle English descendantinfaunte, the ancestor of our word, is in the sense "child.”This use gave rise to our legal sense ofinfant, "a minor,” thus reminding us of individuals who can be very talkative indeed.只要是听过婴儿啼哭声的人，就难以相信infant 的词源是这样来的： 这个词的词源是拉丁文infans （派生形式，即加了词尾的变体， infant- )， 意思是“一个小孩子；严格地说，是指还不会说话的幼儿”。名词是由形容词infans 演化而来的， 它的意思是“不会说话的”“新生的”，由反义前缀in 和现在分词 fans “说话的”构成的， 其动词原形为fari 意思是“说话”。 拉丁字infans 及它的古法语派生字 enfant 都可以用来指会说话的幼儿； 它们的派生词、我们这个字的鼻祖是中古英语字infaunte ，其最早的记载约在1384年左右， 那时的意思是“儿童”。这样，我们这个字的法定意义infant “未成年人”就出现了； 这使我们想起那些十分健谈的人〔descent〕The fact or process of coming down or being derived from a source:演化，派生：从某一源泉发展或演化出来的事实或过程：〔Struve〕Russian-born American astronomer who studied interstellar matter and stellar evolution.斯特鲁维，奥托：(1897-1963) 俄裔美国天文学家，对星际物质和星际演化有研究〔scan〕In the 1969 edition ofThe American Heritage Dictionary a dead issue was buried by our Usage Panel, 85 percent of whom thought it was acceptable to usescan in the sense "to look over quickly,” though the note stated that this was less formal usage.The usage issue was raised becausescan in an earlier sense meant "to examine closely.” From a historical perspective it is easy to see how these two opposite senses ofscan developed. The source of our word, Latinscandere, which meant "to climb,” came to mean "to scan a verse of poetry,” because one could beat the rhythm by lifting and putting down one's foot.The Middle English verbscannen, derived from scandere, came into Middle English in this sense (first recorded in a text composed before 1398). In the 16th century this highly specialized sense having to do with the close analysis of verse developed other senses,such as "to criticize, examine minutely, interpret, perceive.” From these senses having to do with examination and perception,it was an easy step to the sense "to look at searchingly" (first recorded in 1798),perhaps harking back still to the careful, detailed work involved in analyzing prosody.But a thorough search can change into a quick one, as it seems to have done in the case of the verbscan. 在1969年版的美国传统词典 中，我们的用法委员会放弃了一个已废弃的争议， 其中85%的人认为scan 意为“快速浏览”是可接受的， 虽然注释上说这是非正式的用法。之所以这么用是因为scan 在较早的意义上表示“仔细检查”。 从历史的角度了解scan 的两个相反意思如何发展是容易的。 这个单词的词源是拉丁语scandere ，意为“攀登”，后又演化为“标出诗之格律”， 因为人们可以通过抬起或放下脚来打拍子。中世纪英语动词scannen 即是在这个意义上从 scandere 转化而来的（首次被记载在一本1398年之前编辑的教科书上）。 在16世纪这个已经高度专门化并且用来表示仔细分析诗歌的词语又发展出了其它的意项，如“批评、细致入微地检查、翻译或理解”。从这些表示检查和察觉的意思，很容易就过渡到“细察”(1798年首次被记载）的意义，也可能返回到仔细分析诗体的细微工作。但就象这个动词scan 一样，彻底地搜查可能变成快速地浏览 〔cosmogony〕A specific theory or model of the origin and evolution of the universe.天体演化学说：有关宇宙起源和演化的某理论或模式〔existence〕a fantasy that progressed from possibility to actuality;幻想已由可能性演化为现实性；〔descendant〕Something derived from a prototype or earlier form:派生物，从…演变而来的事物：从某种原形或早期形式演化来的事物：〔check〕The wordscheck , chess , and shah are all related. Shah, as one might think, is a borrowing into English of the Persian title for the monarch of that country.The Persian wordshāh was also a term used in chess, a game played in Persia long before it was introduced to Europe.One saidshāh as a warning when the opponent's king was under attack. The Persian word in this sense,after passing through Arabic,probably Old Spanish, and then Old French,came into Middle English aschek about seven hundred years ago. Chess itself comes from a plural form of the Old French word that gave us the word check. Checkmate, the next stage after check, goes back to the Arabic phraseshāh māt, meaning "the king is stymied.”Through a complex development having to do with senses that evolved from the notion of checking the king,check came to mean something used to ensure accuracy or authenticity. One such means was a counterfoil, a part of a check, for example,retained by the issuer as documentation of a transaction.Check first meant "counterfoil" and then came to mean anything,such as a bill or bank draft, with a counterfoil—or eventually even without one.单词check ， chess 和 shah 是互相关联的。 Shah 就象有人可能想象的那样， 是英语里的外来词，原指波斯国王的称号。波斯词语shah 也是国际象棋中的术语， 国际象棋在被引进欧洲之前早就在波斯流传。当对手的“国王”受到攻击时我们说shah 作为一种警告。 这个意义的波斯单词，通过阿拉伯语，可能还有古西班牙语和后来的古法语，大约在七百年前被收入中世纪英语中chek 。 Chess 本身来自于古法语 check 的复数形式。 Checkmate ，是 check 的下一步， 来自于阿拉伯短语shah mat， 意思是“国王进退两难”。从对“国王”将军这个概念演化而来，check 的含义经历了复杂的发展过程，它后来指用以确保准确性或真实性的某种东西。 例如，其中一个含义是指作为支票的一部分的存根，由签发支票的人保留作为交易的单据。Check 最初是指“存根”， 后来指任何有存根的东西，如帐单或银行汇票等，最后甚至指没有存根的东西〔Latin〕Of or relating to the languages that developed from Latin, such as Italian, French, Spanish, and Portuguese, or to the peoples that speak them.拉丁语系的：从拉丁语演化而来的语言的，如意大利语，法语，西班牙语和葡萄牙语，讲这些语言的人的，或关于这样的语言或人的〔derivative〕Resulting from or employing derivation:导出的；演化的：得自由或使用派生物的：〔orthogenesis〕The theory that all cultures pass through sequential periods in the same order.直向演化论：关于所有文化都以相同的顺序经过一系列时期演化而成的理论〔anagenesis〕A pattern of evolution that results in linear descent with no branching or splitting of the population.前进演化，进化：只有直系后代而无旁系后代的演化模式〔xerosere〕A succession of ecological communities originating in a dry habitat.旱生演替系列：在干燥的地面上繁衍的一个生态群落的自然演化 |
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