| 单词 | 等等 |
| 释义 | 〔be〕Traditional grammar requires the nominative form of the pronoun in the predicate of the verbbe : It is I (not me ); That must be they (not them ), and so forth. Even literate speakers of Modern English have found the rule difficult to conform to,but the stigmatization ofIt is me is by now so deeply lodged among the canons of correctness that there is little likelihood that the construction will ever be entirely acceptable in formal writing.Adherence to the traditional rule in informal speech, however, has come to sound increasingly pedantic,and begins to sound absurd when the verb is contracted, as inIt's we. · The traditional rule creates particular problems when the pronoun followingbe also functions as the object of a verb or preposition in a relative clause, as in It is not them/they that we have in mind when we talk about "crime in the streets" nowadays, where the plural pronoun serves as both the predicate ofis and the object of have. In this example, 57 percent of the Usage Panel preferred the nominative formthey, 33 percent preferred the accusativethem, and 10 percent accepted both versions.But H.W. Fowler, like other authorities, argued that the use of the nominative here is an error caused by "the temptation . . . to assume, perhaps from hearingIt is me corrected to It is I, that a subjective [nominative] case cannot be wrong after the verb to be. ” Writers can usually find a way to avoid this problem: They are not the ones we have in mind, We have someone else in mind, and so on. See Usage Note at I 1we 传统语法要求系动词谓语中的代词用主格形式be ： It is I （而不是 me ）； That must be they （而不是 them ），等等。 即使现代英语有文化的人也发现很难遵守这个规则，而It is me 的烙印现在已深刻地印入了判断是否正确的准则之中， 以致很少有可能使这种用法在正式书面语中被完全接受。但是在非正式讲话中奉行传统规则已经日益变得象在卖弄学问。并且当系动词被缩减时，就象在It's we 中一样，听起来反而象是不合语法的。 当代词跟在be 后面做动词宾语或做关系从句中的介语宾语时，传统的规则就象在 当我们谈到当今“街上的犯罪”时，他们不是我们心中所想的那些人， 句中复数代词同时充当is 的宾语和 have 的宾语。 在这个例子中57%的用法使用小组更喜欢用主格形式they， 33%更喜欢用宾格形式them， 而10%则两种都接受。但是象其他的权威一样，H.W.福勒争论道，在这里用主格是一个错误，它之所以错是因为“多半听到了It is me 都被改正成 It is I 而拿不定主意，以为主格的情况在动词 to be 后面不可能错。” 作家们常常能够找到一个办法来避免这个问题： 他们不是我们所想的人，我们脑子里想的是另一些人等等 参见 I1we〔he〕No one seems to take any pride in his work anymore, and so on. 没有人再会对自己 的工作感到骄傲 等等。 〔kind〕In fact, thekind of construction can be plausibly analyzed either way, which is doubtless why writers have mixed and matched the number of demonstratives and verbs in just about every possible combination.We find reputable precedent forthis kind of films are, these kind of films are, this kind of films is, these kind of films is, and so on. There are only two reliable regularities:when the pluralkinds is used, the demonstrative and the verb must also be plural: 实际上，kind of 结构可以用任一方式分析， 这毫无疑问是作家混用了指示代词和动词的每一种可能的结合，并且每一种结合的数量大致相等的原因。我们找到规范的先例，如this kind of films are, these kind of films are, this kind of films is, these kind of films is 等等。 只有两种可信赖的规律：当复数kinds 使用时， 指示代词和动词也只是复数： 〔hardly〕The use ofhardly with a negative is avoided in Standard English. Some critics have been puzzled that adverbs such ashardly, rarely, and scarcely should be treated as negatives in the traditional strictures against double negation, which tars sentences likeI couldn't hardly see him with the same brush as I didn't get none. After all, they argue, the sentenceMary hardly laughed entails that Mary did laugh, not that she didn't,and therefore does not express a negative proposition.Buthardly and scarcely occur with other negative expressions in a number of ways. For one thing, they combine with items such asany and at all, which are characteristically associated with negative contexts: we sayI hardly saw him at all or I never saw him at all but notI occasionally saw him at all; we sayI hardly had any time or I didn't have any time but notI had any time, and so on. Like other negative adverbs,hardly triggers inversion of the subject and auxiliary when it begins a sentence. Thus we sayHardly had I arrived when she left, on the pattern of Never have I read such a book or At no time has he condemned the movement. Such inversion is not used with other adverbs:we would not sayOccasionally has he addressed this question or To a slight degree have they changed their position. The fact is that adverbs such ashardly are semantically negative in that they qualify a state or an event relative to the limiting case of nonoccurrence.Thus the meaning ofhardly is, roughly, "almost not at all"; the meaning ofrarely is "practically never"; and so forth. These adverbs are felt to have a negative component in their meaning,and it should not be surprising that grammarians have reacted to combinations ofhardly with negatives in the same way that they have reacted to combinations of pairs of negatives such as not and none. See Usage Note at double negative ,rarely ,scarcely Hardly 和一个否定词在一起的用法在标准英语中应尽量避免， 一些批评学家一直怀疑象hardly，rarely 和 scarcely 这样的副词在传统的双重否定的句中应被视为否定词， 这样的词使句子象I couldn't hardly see him 和 I didn't get none 一样被弄糟了， 他们争论说，毕竟句子Mary hardly laughed 的意思是玛丽的确笑了， 而不是她没笑，所以不表示否定的建议。但是hardly 和 scarcely 和其他的否定表示一起在许多方面出现， 举例说，他们和象any 和 at all 这样独特的和否定上下文联系的条目组合在一起， 我们说I hardly saw him at all 或 I never saw him at all , 但并不是I occasionally saw him at all； 我们说I hardly had any time 或 I didn't have any time 但不是I had any time 等。 象其它否定副词，hardly 在句子开头时引起主语和助动词的倒装， 于是我们说Hardly had I arrived when she left， 和 Never have I read such a book 或 At no time has he condemned the movement. 等同样的句型。 别的副词并不用这样的倒装：我们不能说Occasionally has he addressed this question 或 To a slight degree have they changed their position 。 事实是象hardly 这样的副词语义上是否定的， 他们限定修饰了与不发生有关的状态或事件。于是hardly 的意思大概是“几乎根本不”； rarely 的意思大概是“实际上没有”；等等。 这些副词在他们的意思里留有否定的成分，语法学家们对hardly 和否定词组合的反应和对一对否定词如 not 和 none组合的反应一样是不足为奇的 参见 double negative,rarely,scarcely〔what〕a room full of chairs, lamps, radios, and what have you.一间屋子，放满了椅子、灯、收音机等等的〔intense〕intense pleasure, dislike, loyalty, and so forth. Intensive 极度的快乐，极为厌恶，非常忠诚等等。 Intensive 〔so〕And similarly; and continuing in a like manner.等等：同样地；以同样的方式继续〔what〕What remains and need not be mentioned:等等：剩下的不需要提及的：〔host〕Host was used as a verb in Shakespeare's time, but this usage was long obsoletewhen the verb was reintroduced (or perhaps reinvented) in recent yearsto mean "perform the role of a host.”The usage occurs particularly in contexts relating to institutional gatherings or television and radio shows,where the person performing the role of host has not personally invited the guests to his or her own establishment (thus it would be odd to sayThis evening we are hosting a dinner party at our house for my husband's cousins from New York ). Perhaps because the verb involves a suspect extension of the traditional conception of hospitality,it initially met with critical resistance.In a 1968 surveyonly 18 percent of the Usage Panel accepted the usage in the sentenceThe Cleveland chapter will host this year's convention. Over time, however,the usage has become increasingly well establishedand appears to serve a useful purpose in describing the activities of one who performs the ceremonial or practical role of a host (in arranging a conference or entertainment, welcoming guests, and so forth).In our most recent survey53 percent of the Panelists accepted the usage in the phrasea reception hosted by the Secretary of State. The verb is less well accepted when used to describe the role of a performer who acts as a master of ceremonies for a broadcast or film,where the relation of the word to the notion of "hospitality" is stretched still further.Only 31 percent of the Panel accepted the use of the verb in the sentenceStudents have watched Sex, Drugs and AIDS, a graphic film hosted by actress Rae Dawn Chong. · The verbcohost has likewise become well established in its use to refer to those who collaborate in assuming responsibility for an occasion. Fifty-eight percent of the Usage Panel accepted this use in the sentenceThe Department of Architecture and the Department of History will be cohosting a reception for conference participants. Host 一词在莎士比亚时代用作动词， 但自那时起这一用法很长时间不用了，直到近年来又被重新起用（或者可能重新创造），用来表示“担当主人的角色”。这一用法尤其在学术聚会或电视、电台节目的情况下使用，在这些情况下，身为主人的人并没有以私人身份邀请客人去到他或她自己的家中，（这样的话，如果我们说今天晚上我们将在家中为我丈夫来自纽约的表兄妹‘主办’一个晚餐会 就会觉得有点别扭）。 也许是因为有人认为这一动词用法会扩大传统的“好客”概念，所以一开始它就遭到了批评性抑制。在1968年的一次调查中，用法专题使用小组中18%的成员在如下句子中的用法，即克利夫兰分会将主办本年度的大会。 但是，随着时间的推移，这一用法已逐渐被接受，并在描绘一个担当司仪或具体的主人任务（例如安排会议或娱乐活动，欢迎客人等等）时起到了很好的作用。在我们最近一次的调查中，用法专题使用小组中的53%的成员接受了短语由国务卿出面举办的招待会 中"host"一词的用法。 但当这一动词用法用来描绘作为广播节目或电影节目的主持人的主持工作时，人们就不太接受其用法，因为这样用，这个词与“好客”这一概念的关系就更松了。只有31%的用法专题使用小组成员接受host在句子学生们观摩了 由 演员雷·唐·宗主持解说的纪录片 ‘性、毒品与艾滋病’”中的动词用法。 同样，用来表示分工合作共同举办某一活动的动词cohost 也已被普遍接受。 58%的用法专题使用小组成员接受这一动词在如下句子中的用法：建筑系和历史系将共同为与会者举办一次招待会 〔data〕But whiledata comes from a Latin plural form, the practice of treatingdata as a plural in English often does not correspond to its meaning, given an understanding of what counts as data in modern research.We know, for example, what "data on the homeless" would consist of—surveys, case histories, statistical analyses, and so forth—but it would be a vain exercise to try to sort all of these out into sets of individual facts,each of them a "datum" on the homeless. (Does a case history count as a single datum,or as a collection of them?Is a correlation between rates of homelessness and unemployment itself a datum, or is it an abstraction over a number of data?)Since scientists and researchers think of data as a singular mass entity like information,it is entirely natural that they should have come to talk about it as such and that others should defer to their practice.Sixty percent of the Usage Panel accepts the use ofdata with a singular verb and pronoun in the sentenceOnce the data is in, we can begin to analyze it. A still larger number, 77 percent, accepts the sentence 但是当data 来源于一拉丁复数形式， 在英语中把data 当作复数来对待的运用常常和它的意义不相符合， 给了我们在现代研究中算作数据事物的一种理解。例如，我们知道，“无家可归人的资料”将由调查、个人历史，数据分析等等构成——但是试着把这些都分类到一套个人事实将会是一次无用的尝试，他们中的每一个都为无家可归人的资料。 （个人历史是算作一个简单的资料，还是作为其中的一个收集?无家可归人的比率和失业之间的联系是一个资料，还是一系列资料中的一个提取？）既然科学家和研究工作者认为资料和信息一样是一个单一的团体，他们就应该这样地来谈论它并且其他的人应当服丛他们的说法，这是完全自然的，百分之六十的用法专题使用小组成员接受把data 和单数动词和代词连用， 如在句子一旦资料来了，我们就能开始分析了 中， 更大的比例，即百分之七十七的成员接受了句子 〔wait〕Let's wait up for the stragglers.让我们等等掉队的人 |
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