| 单词 | 通用的 |
| 释义 | 〔critter〕Critter, a pronunciation spelling of creature, actually reflects a pronunciation that would have been very familiar to Shakespeare:16th- and 17th-century English had not yet begun to pronounce the-ture suffix with its modern (ch) sound. This archaic pronunciation still exists in regional Americancritter and in Irishcreature, pronounced (krāʹtŭr) and used in the same senses as the American regionalism. The most common meaning ofcritter is "a living creature,” whether wild or domestic; it also can mean "a child" when used as a term of sympathetic endearment,or it can mean "an unfortunate person.”In old-fashioned regional speech,critter and beast denoted a large domestic animal. The more restricted senses "a cow,” "a horse,” or "a mule" are still characteristic of the speech in specific regions of the United States.The use ofcritter among younger speakers almost always carries with it a jocular or informal connotation. Critter 是 creature 这一词的发音拼法， 实际上反映了一种莎士比亚极其通晓的发音法：16和17世纪的英语中还没有开始用现代英语中的(ch)音来发-ture 这一后缀的音。 这一古发音法仍存在于地区性美语critter 中， 而且在爱尔兰语中creature (kra'tur)的发音和用法与地区性美语相同。 critter 这一词的最通用的意思是“生物”，无论是野生的还是家养的； 作为昵称时，它可以作“小孩”解释；它还可以指“一个不幸运的人”。在老式的地区性语言中，critter 和 beast 意指大型的家畜。 它的更狭窄的含义“牛”、“马”或“驴”则仍然是美国某些特定地区的方言中的特有含义。年轻人对于critter 的用法则几乎总认为是带有恢谐或非正式的含义 〔ax〕Ax, a common nonstandard variant of ask, is often identified as an especially salient feature of African American Vernacular English. While it is true that the form is frequent in the speech of African Americans, it used to be common in the speech of white Americans as well, especially in New England. This should not be surprising since ax is a very old word in English, having been used in England for over 1,000 years. In Old English we find both āscian and ācsian, and in Middle English both asken and axen. Moreover, the forms with cs or x had no stigma associated with them. Chaucer used asken and axen interchangeably, as in the lines "I wol aske, if it hir will be/To be my wyf" and "Men axed hym, what sholde bifalle,” both from The Canterbury Tales. The forms in x arose from the forms in sk by a linguistic process called metathesis, in which two sounds are reversed. The x thus represents (ks), the flipped version of (sk). Metathesis is a common linguistic process around the world and does not arise from a defect in speaking. Nevertheless, ax has become stigmatized as substandard—a fate that has befallen other words, like ain't, that were once perfectly acceptable in literate circles. ask 的一般非标准变体 ax 常被认为是美国黑人英语极为显著的特色。尽管美国黑人在交谈中的确使用ax这种形式，但美国白人也在口语中普遍使用它，尤其是新英格兰的白人。不必对此表示惊奇，因为 ax 是个很古老的英语词汇，在英语中至少使用了1000年以上。古英语中有 āscian 和 ācsian, ，中古英语中有 asken 和 axen 。而且，带 cs 或 x 的形式同不好的含义无关。乔叟在下文中交替使用 asken 和 axen ："I wol aske, if it hir will be/To be my wyf（我问道，这是真是幻/将成为我的妻子）”和"Men axed hym, what sholde bifalle（人们问他，会降临什么）”，这两句话都出自 《坎特伯利故事集》 。带 sk 的形式经由 换位 的语言过程产生带 x 的形式，换位就是将两个音位置颠倒。因此 x 表示(ks)的发音，即(sk)的翻转发音。换位是世界通用的语言过程并且不会造成交谈中的欠缺。但 ax 已被记作非标准用法──同样降临在曾一度被知识界完全接受的其它单词（如 ain't ）的命运 〔behavior〕 Behavior is the most general: Behavior 是最通用的： 〔insanity〕Madness, a more general term, often stresses the violent aspect of mental illness: Madness 是一个更为通用的词，通常强调精神病的狂暴的一面： 〔hopefully〕And though this use ofhopefully may have been a vogue word when it first gained currency 30 years ago, it has long since lost any taint of jargon or pretentiousness for the general reader.The well-attested acceptance of the usage reflects an implicit popular recognition of its usefulness;there is no precise substitute.Someone who saysHopefully, the treaty will be ratified makes a hopeful prediction about the fate of the treaty,whereas someone who saysI hope (or We hope or It is hoped ) the treaty will be ratified expresses a bald statement about what is desired. Only the latter could be continued with a clause such asbut it isn't likely. · It might have been expected, then, that the initial flurry of objections tohopefully would have subsided once the usage became well established. Instead, increased currency of the usage appears only to have made the critics more adamant.In the 1969 Usage Panel survey the usage was acceptable to 44 percent of the Panel;in the most recent survey it was acceptable to only 27 percent.(By contrast, 60 percent accepted the analogous use ofmercifully in the sentence Mercifully, the game ended before the opponents could add another touchdown to the lopsided score. ) Yet the Panel has not shown any signs of becoming generally more conservative:in the very same survey panelists were disposed to accept once-vilified usagessuch as the employment ofcontact and host as verbs. · It seems that this use ofhopefully has been made a litmus test, which distinguishes writers who take an active interest in questions of grammar or usage from the great mass of people who keep their own linguistic counsel.No one can be blamed who useshopefully in blithe ignorance of the critics' disdain for it, since the rule could not be derived from any general concern for clarity or precision.But writers who are aware of the critical controversy face a more delicate decision.Some will simply flout the rule,seeing no reason that they should be deprived of a useful construction.Others may choose to avoid the usage,whether they are motivated by discretion or civility. ·Like other sentence adverbs such asbluntly and happily, hopefully may occasionally be ambiguous. In the sentenceHopefully, the company has launched a new venture, the word hopefully might be construed as describing the point of view of either the speaker or the subject. Such ambiguities can be resolved either by repositioning the adverb (as inThe company has launched the new venture hopefully ) or by choosing a paraphrase ( One may hope that the company has launched the new venture ). 尽管hopefully 的这一用法在30年前首次通用的时候曾是个时兴词， 但对于广大读者来说它早已失去了俚语或矫饰的色彩。屡经证实的对这一用法的接受反映了对其实用性的普遍默认；而且并不存在其他精确的代用词。有人如果说但愿条约能被批准 ， 便是对条约的命运作了充满希望的预测，反之如果有人说我希望 （或 我们希望 或 希望 ) 条约将会被批准 则表达了对其期望之物的大胆声明。 只有后者可以接从句象但这不大可能 。 也许我们本可以期待当这一用法已变得根深蒂固之后， 对hopefully 的一片反对声可稍事平息。 然而，这一用法的流行似乎反而使批评家们更为坚定。在1969年用法调查使用小组的调查中44%的成员接受这一用法；在最近一次的调查中却只有27%的成员接受。（相比之下，60%的人接受mercifully 在句子 幸好，在对手能够给这一边倒的比分再加上一分之前，比赛就结束了 中的类似用法） 但是并没有任何迹象表明调查小组成员正在普遍变得更保守：在同一次调查中小组成员们倾向于接受被一度废除的某些用法，如把contact 和 host 用作动词看来。 似乎hopefully 的用法已经成了一块试金石， 它把对语法和用法怀有浓厚兴趣的作家和保留着他们自己的语言学顾问的广大民众区分开来。那些全然忽视批评家们的蔑视使用hopefully 的人不该受到指责， 因为规则并不来源于任何对清晰和精确的关注。但是意识到了批评界争议的作者们面对着一个更为微妙的决定。有些人干脆违反规则，他们认为没有理由要失去这么一个实用的结构。另外一些人则选择避免这一用法，无论其动机是出于谨慎还是出于礼貌。象许多其它句中副词如bluntly 和 happily一样，hopefully 经常出现歧义。 在下句 Hopefully, the company has launched a new venture 中， hopefully 一词可以解释为记述说话者的观点或者句中主语的观点。 这种歧义可以通过调换副词位置（如公司已经满怀希望地到办了一个新企业 )或选择另一种说法( 有人希望这个公司已经创办了一个新企业 )来消除 〔universal〕Adapted or adjustable to many sizes or mechanical uses.通用的：适合于或调整到许多尺寸或机械用途的〔vernacular〕The common, nonscientific name of a plant or an animal.俗名：某一植物或动物的通用的、非科学的名称〔contact〕In 1966 Wilson Follett wrotethat "Persons old enough to have been repelled by the verbcontact . . . may as well make up their minds that there is no way to arrest or reverse the tide of its popularity.” His prophecy is proving correct:In 1969 only 34 percent of the Usage Panel accepted the use ofcontact as a verb, but in our most recent survey 65 percent of the Panel accepted the sentence 1966年威尔森·福莱特写道：“对contact 这个动词素有反感的年长者还不如趁早接受这一无法阻拦或逆转它日渐通用的趋势这个事实”。 他的预言证明是正确的，在1969年用法专题使用小组成员中只有34％的人接受将contact 作为动词的用法， 但在我们最近的调查中65％的用法小组成员接受以下句子： 〔credential〕The participlecredentialed is well established in reference to certified teachers and some other professions, but its more general use to mean "possessing professional or expert credentials" is still widely considered jargon.The sentenceThe board heard testimony from a number of credentialed witnesses was unacceptable to 85 percent of the Usage Panel. 其分词形式credentialed 用于指合格的教师和一些其他专业人员的用法早已被接受， 但它作为“持有专业或专家证书的”这种更通用的用法却仍需慎思后才能使用。“委员会听取了一些资格证人的证词” 这句话在85%的用法调查中都不被接受 〔futhark〕The common Germanic runic alphabet.北欧古字母表：通用的日耳曼语族如尼文字母表〔krummkake〕The Upper Midwest received a great influx of Scandinavian immigrants in the 19th century,and the English that these people learned was augmented by Scandinavian words for their native food and customs.Thus we havekrummkake, the name of a large, light, very thin Norwegian cookiemade from an egg-based batter poured into an embossed hinged iron similar to a waffle iron.Peeled off the iron while warm and pliable,each krummkake is then rolled around a cone-shaped metal tubeso that it hardens in that shapeand is filled with sweetened whipped cream.Krummkake is best known in the Upper Midwest,but the term is familiar elsewhere thanks to the inclusion of the recipe in nationally used cookbooks.美国中西部的北部地区在19世纪涌入了大批斯堪的纳维亚移民，他们在他们所学的英语中加入了食物和风俗方面的斯堪的纳维亚词语。这样就有了krummkake 这个词, 这是一种大而薄的淡色挪威糕点。它由以鸡蛋为主要材料成份的面糊倒入一个类似于烘饼铁钳模的雕花铰链式铁钳模而成。在它还温热和柔韧的时候把它从模子里取下来，然后把它包在一个圆锥形的金属管上，这样它变硬的时候就成了那个形状，再加入加糖的掼奶油。在中西部北部地区最为常见，但是由于在全国通用的烹调书都收进了这种方法，所以各地的人对这个词都很熟悉〔doll〕The worddoll has come up in the world, at least if up means moving from the backstairs to the nursery. Doll andDolly were originally nicknames for Dorothy. Doll, along with other names likeJill and Nan, took on the generic sense of "a mistress,” so we have Shakespeare's Doll Tearsheet and Ben Jonson's Doll Common.This association probably caused the nameDorothy to go out of use temporarily, about the time near the beginning of the 18th century when we finddoll first recorded for a child's toy. Doll came to refer to larger beings again,however, for in the latter part of the 18th century it was once more applied to women,this time to pretty, empty-headed women. Doll has gone on to more general applications,and a man can be a doll as well.单词doll 的出现就象 up ，表示从后楼梯到育儿室一样。 Doll 或Dolly 起初都是 Dorothy的绰号。 Doll 与Jill 和 Nan 一样有一个通用的意思：“主妇”， 所以我们就有莎士比亚的Doll Tearsheet和班·琼生的Doll Common。这种联系可能使Dorothy 一词在18世纪初暂时废弃， 在18世纪初我们发现把doll 指作儿童玩具的首次记载。 Doll 又进而开始指较大范围的人类，然而，18世纪后期该词更多地用来指妇女，这次是指漂亮而无头脑的女人。 Doll 现在的应用更广了，男人也可以是doll了〔multiplex〕Relating to or being a system of simultaneous communication of two or more messages on the same wire or radio channel.多路传输的：在同一电线或电路中同步通用的系统的〔vernacular〕Relating to or designating the common, nonscientific name of a plant or an animal.俗名的：关于或称呼某植物或动物的通用的、非科学名称的 |
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