| 单词 | 限定 |
| 释义 | 〔certain〕Althoughcertain appears to be an absolute term, it is frequently qualified by adverbs,as infairly certain or quite certain. In an earlier survey,a majority of the Usage Panel accepted the construction 尽管certain 像一个独立的词， 它也经常被副词的限定，如相当确定 或 非常肯定。 据以前的调查，多数用法专题使用小组成员接受这一结构 〔proviso〕A clause in a document making a qualification, condition, or restriction.限制性条文：文件中作为一个限定、条件或限制的条文〔perfume〕par- [intensive pref.] from Latin per- [per-] par- [限定前缀] 源自 拉丁语 per- [前缀，表示“遍及”] 〔side〕A surface bounding a solid figure.面：限定一立体图形的面〔finitude〕The quality or condition of being finite.有限，限定：有限表现出的特征或状况〔frame〕The question was framed to draw only one answer.这个问题被限定只能有一个答案〔closed〕closed membership.限定的会员资格〔determinate〕Precisely limited or defined; definite:确定的，限定的：被准确地加以限制的；限定的：〔unlimited〕Without qualification or exception; absolute:无穷的：未加限定的或没有例外的；绝对的：〔naughty〕Words have changes in their fortunes over time just as people and institutions do.The wordnaughty at one time might have been high on one's list as an all-purpose word similar to bad or nice. During the 16th centuryone could usenaughty to mean "unhealthy, unpleasant, bad (with respect to weather), vicious (of an animal), inferior, or bad in quality" (one could say "very naughtie figes" or "naughty corrupt water"). All of these senses have disappeared, however,andnaughty is now used mainly in contexts involving mischief or indecency. This recalls its early days in Middle English (with the formnoughti ), when the word was restricted to the senses "evil, hostile, ineffectual, and needy.”Middle Englishnoughti, first recorded in works written in the last quarter of the 14th century, was derived fromnought, which as a noun had senses such as "evil,”as a pronoun meant "nothing,”and as an adjective could mean such things as "immoral, weak, useless.”Nought was descended from Old English nāwiht, with similar senses,a compound made up ofnā, "no,” and wiht, "thing, being.” Thusnaughty, in a sense, has risen from nothing,but its fortunes have been better than they are at present.正像人们和制度那样，词随着时间改变了意思。单词naughty 曾一度作为类似于 bad 或 nice 这种通用词语而列于某人的词汇表中。 在16世纪，人们可以用naughty 来指“不健康的，不舒服的，坏的（和天气相关的），邪恶的（动物），较劣的，或质量坏的”（人们可以说“非常坏的人” 或“不健康的被污染的水”）。 然而所有的这些词义都消失了，现在naughty 主要用于关系到顽皮或不妥的上下文中。 这使人回想起它在中世纪英语的早些时候形式为naughti ， 当这个词被限定为用作“邪恶的，敌意的，无用的，和贫穷的”意思。中世纪英语的noughti 最先记录于写于14世纪后二十五年的著作中， 是由nought 派生而来的， 作为名词用有“邪恶”的意思，作为代词用是“没有”的意思，和作为形容词为“不道德的，虚弱的，无用的”。Nought 是从古英语 nawiht 中传下来的， 并且有相似的意思，由na “没有”和 wiht “事情，事物”组成的合成词。 这样naughty 从某种意义上来说， 从没有中生出，但是其意思却比现在的这些意思好得多〔zillion〕An extremely large, indefinite number.无数：无限大、没限定的数目〔side〕A line bounding a plane figure.边线：限定一平面图形的线〔special〕Having a limited or specific function, application, or scope:特定的：具有限定的或特定的功能、作用或范围：〔limit〕To confine or restrict within a boundary or bounds.限制：限制或限定在一边界或范围之内〔nerd〕The wordnerd and a nerd, undefined but illustrated, first appeared in 1950 in Dr. Seuss'sIf I Ran the Zoo : "And then, just to show them,I'll sail to Ka-Troo And Bring Back an It-Kutch a Preep and a Proo a Nerkle a Nerd and a Seersucker, too!” (The nerd itself is a small humanoid creature looking comically angry,like a thin, cross Chester A. Arthur.)Nerd next appears, with a gloss, in the February 10, 1957, issue of the Glasgow, Scotland, Sunday Mail in a regular column entitled "ABC for SQUARES": "Nerd—a square, any explanation needed?”Many of the terms defined in this "ABC" are unmistakable Americanisms,such ashep, ick, and jazzy, as is the gloss "square,” the current meaning ofnerd. The third appearance ofnerd in print is back in the United States in 1970 in Current Slang : “Nurd [sic], someone with objectionable habits or traits. . . . An uninteresting person, a ‘dud.’” Authorities disagree on whether the two nerds—Dr. Seuss's small creature and the teenage slang term in theGlasgow Sunday Mail —are the same word. Some experts claim there is no semantic connectionand the identity of the words is fortuitous.Others maintain that Dr. Seuss is the true originator ofnerd and that the wordnerd ("comically unpleasant creature") was picked up by the five- and six-year-olds of 1950 and passed on to their older siblings, who by 1957, as teenagers,had restricted and specified the meaning to the most comically obnoxious creature of their own class,a "square.”单词nerd 和 a nerd，无定义但有说明， 第一次出现于1950年瑟斯博士写的要是我管动物园 中： “然后，仅仅是为了给他们看，我将航行到Ka-Troo，并带回It-Kutch a Preep和a Proo a Nerkle a Nerd ，还有一件印度泡泡纱！”（蠢货本身是一个具有人类特点的小动物，一副好笑发怒的样子，像瘦小很生气的切斯特·A阿瑟）。Nerd 接着在1957年2月10日苏格兰格拉斯哥人一期杂志上再次出现，还有一个解释。 星期日邮报 在一常设栏目中出了题为“古板之人ABC"的文章： "Nerd——古板之人，还需要任何解释吗?”许多在这个"ABC"中定义的术语是明显的美国特有词，如hep,ick 和 jazzy ， 正如nerd 的现行意思“古板之人”一样， nerd 第三次出现于印刷品中又回到了1970年美国的 最新俚语 中： “Nurd ［原文如此］带有令人不快的习惯或品质的人…一个没趣的人，一个‘饭桶。’” 权威们对这两个蠢货--瑟斯博士所指的小动物和格拉斯奇星期日邮报 上的青少年俚语是否是同一个词持不同意见。 有些专家宣称此处无语义联系，两个词的相似属偶然。其他人则坚持瑟斯博士是nerd 一词的始创者， 且nerd 一词（意为“令人不快的滑稽小动物”）让1950年时五、六岁的孩子们学会并传给了比他们大些的兄姐。 到1957年，作为青少年，他们把意思限定和专指他们当中最滑稽讨厌的家伙，即“古板守旧”的人〔first〕Of, relating to, or being the transmission gear or corresponding gear ratio used to produce the range of lowest drive speeds in a motor vehicle.头档的，低速齿轮的：限定机动车辆最低驾驶速度范围的传动齿轮或对应齿轮比率的或与之有关的〔modify〕from Latin modificāre [to measure, limit] 源自 拉丁语 modificāre [调整，限定] 〔alleged〕Analleged burglar is someone who has been accused of being a burglar but against whom no charges have been proved. Analleged incident is an event that is said to have taken place but has not yet been verified. In their zeal to protect the rights of the accused,newspapers and law enforcement officials sometimes misusealleged. A man arrested for murder may be only analleged murderer, for example, but he is a real, not analleged, suspect in that his status as a suspect is not in doubt. Similarly, if the money from a safe is known to have been stolen and not merely mislaid,then we may safely speak of a theft without having to qualify our description withalleged. 一个alleged（有嫌疑的） 强盗是指被指控为强盗但并未得到证实的人。 alleged（据称的） 的事件是一件据说发生过但还未被证实的事。 出于保护被指控者权力的热情，报界和执法官员有时误用alleged 这个词。 比如说，一个因谋杀而被捕的人，可能只是个alleged（有嫌疑的） 谋杀犯， 但当他是真正的而不是alleged（据称的） 嫌疑犯时，那么他身为嫌疑犯的处境就是毫无疑问的。 与此相似，如果放在保险箱里的钱已知是被人偷走而不仅仅是放错了，那么我们应该可以毫不犹豫地把它说成盗窃案而不用加alleged 这个词来限定我们的描述 〔unqualified〕Not modified by conditions or reservations; absolute:绝对的：没有被条件或保留意见所限定的；绝对的：〔definite〕Middle English diffinite [defined] 中古英语 diffinite [限定的] 〔condition〕One that restricts or modifies another; a qualification.资格：限制或改变其它事件的事件；限定条件〔who〕The traditional rules that determine the use ofwho and whom are relatively simple: who is used for a grammatical subject, where a nominative pronoun such as I or he would be appropriate, andwhom is used elsewhere. Thus, we writeThe actor who played Hamlet was there, sincewho stands for the subject of played Hamlet; andWho do you think is the best candidate? where who stands for the subject of is the best candidate. But we writeTo whom did you give the letter? sincewhom is the object of the preposition to; andThe man whom the papers criticized did not show up, sincewhom is the object of the verb criticized. ? Considerable effort and attention are required to apply the rules correctly in complicated sentences.To produce correctly a sentence such asI met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite, we must anticipate when we writewhom that it will function as the object of the verb extradite, several clauses distant from it.It is thus not surprising that writers from Shakespeare onward should often have interchangedwho and whom. And though the distinction shows no signs of disappearing in formal style,strict adherence to the rules in informal discourse might be taken as evidence that the speaker or writer is paying undue attention to the form of what is said, possibly at the expense of its substance.In speech and informal writingwho tends to predominate over whom; a sentence such asWho did John say he was going to support? will be regarded as quite natural, if strictly incorrect. By contrast, the use ofwhom where who would be required, as inWhom shall I say is calling? may be thought to betray a certain linguistic insecurity. ? When the relative pronoun stands for the object of a preposition that ends a sentence,whom is technically the correct form: the strict grammarian will insist onWhom (not who ) did you give it to? But grammarians since Noah Webster have argued that the excessive formality ofwhom in these cases is at odds with the relative informality associated with the practice of placing the preposition in final position and that the use of who in these cases should be regarded as entirely acceptable. ? The relative pronounwho may be used in restrictive relative clauses, in which case it is not preceded by a comma, or in nonrestrictive clauses, in which case a comma is required.Thus, we may say eitherThe scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized, where the clausewho discovers a cure for cancer indicates which scientist will be immortalized, orThe mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known, where the clausewho solved the four-color theorem adds information about a person already identified by the phrase the mathematician over there. ? Some grammarians have argued that onlywho and not that should be used to introduce a restrictive relative clause that identifies a person. This restriction has no basis either in logic or in the usage of the best writers;it is entirely acceptable to write eitherthe man that wanted to talk to you or the man who wanted to talk to you. ? The grammatical rules governing the use ofwho and whom apply equally to whoever and whomever. See Usage Note at else ,that ,whose 确定用法的传统规则who 和 whom 相对简单： who 语法上用作主语，同 I 或 he 等主格代词的位置相同， 而whom 用于别处。 这样，我们写The actor who played Hamlet was there （演哈姆雷特的演员在那边）， 因此who 代表的是 played Hamlet 的主语。 在句子Who do you think is the best candidate? （你认为谁是最好的候选人?）中 who 代表 is the best candidate 的主语。 但是我们说To whom did you give the letter? （你把信给谁了?）， 因为whom 是介词 to 的宾语； 在句子The man whom the papers criticized did not show up, （报纸上批评的那个人没有来）， 因为whom 是动词 criticized 的宾语 。在复杂的句子里，正确应用这些规则需要相当的努力和注意。正确地造出如I met the man whom the government had tried to get France to extradite （我遇到了政府曾努力让法国引渡的那个人）这样的句子， 在写whom 之前我们必须预知它将作动词 extradite 的宾语， 尽管两个词离得很远。这也就难怪自莎士比亚以来的作家经常把who 和 whom 交换使用了。 尽管在正式文体中两者区别仍然存在，但如果在非正式的交谈中严格地遵守这些规则会被认为说话者或作者可能不顾内容而过分注视说话的形式。在口语和非正式书面语中，who 趋向于代替 whom; 人们会认为象Who did John say he was going to support? （约翰说他将支持谁?）这样句子很自然，尽管严格来说它是不正确的。 相反，在应该用who 的地方用 whom 则显出一种语言上的不稳定， 如Whom shall I say is calling? （我说是谁在打电话?）。 当关系代词替代句尾的介词宾语时，whom 在理论上是正确的形势： 严格的语法坚持Whom （而不是 who ) did you give it to?（你把它给谁了？） 但从诺·韦伯斯特以来的语法学家认为whom 在这种情况下过分正式，而把介词放在句尾相对来说又不正式，这就有了矛盾，所以在这种情况下用 who 完全可以接受。 关系代词who 可以用在限定关系从句中，前面不要加逗号， 也可用在非限定关系从句中，则需要加逗号。所以我们既可以说The scientist who discovers a cure for cancer will be immortalized （发现治愈癌症的方法的科学家将会因此而不朽）， 在此处从句who discovers a cure for cancer 指这样的科学家将会不朽， 也可以说The mathematician over there, who solved the four-color theorem, is widely known （在那边的数学家非常出名，他解决了四色定理）， 从句who solved the four-color theorem 给已经由短语 the mathematician over there 确定了的人增加了一些有关他的信息。 有些语法学家认为只有who 而不是 that 可以连接表示人的限定性关系从句。 这种限制在逻辑上没有根据，在最优秀作家的用法中也未有根据；无论说the man that wanted to talk to you （想要跟你说话的那个人）或 the man who wanted to talk to you 都是完全可以接受的。 有关who 和 whom 的语法规则同样适用于 whoever 和 whomever 参见 else,that,whose〔period〕"These principles form the bright constellation which has . . . guided our steps through an age of revolution and reformation" (Thomas Jefferson). Aterm is a period of time to which limits have been set: 这些规定构成了灿烂星座…指引我们通过变革与革命时代的脚步 （汤姆斯·杰斐逊）。Term 指有限定的一段时间： 〔parallel〕In its mathematical usageparallel is an absolute term— two lines either do or do not intersect—and as such does not admit of qualification as to degree.Some grammarians have arguedthat this restriction should apply as well to nontechnical uses of the word.According to this logic,one may not sayThe two roads have been made more parallel, except perhaps as a loose way of saying what is rendered more precisely by expressions such asmore nearly parallel. Like the analogous objection that has been made to the comparison ofequal, the point betrays a misconception about the relation between mathematical concepts and their ordinary-language equivalents.Applied to objects in the world,parallel can only denote a rough approximation to a geometric ideal. A pair of rails or parked cars cannot be truly parallel in the mathematician's sense of the termbut only more or less so,just as a road or shelf cannot be truly straight in the geometric sensebut nonetheless may be described as very straight or relatively straight.The grammarians' compunctions make even less sense when applied to metaphorical uses ofparallel, as inThe difficulties faced by the Republicans are quite parallel to those that confronted the Democrats four years ago, in which the intended meaning has nothing to do with the possibility of intersectionbut instead suggests the structural correspondence of two distinct situations.In this sense, parallelism is clearly a matter of degreeand the wordparallel can be modified accordingly. See Usage Note at equal ,perfect ,unique 在数学用法中，parallel 是一个绝对的表达法—— 两条线要么相交，要么就不相交——它既没有限定性也没有程度差别。一些语法学家曾提出，这种限制也应该适用于该词在非科技方面的用法，按照这种逻辑，人们不能说这两条路已被修得更加平行了， 除非作为用例如更接近于平行 这样的表达方法更精确地表示的东西的不够精确的说出方法。 象对equal 的比较所做的类似反对一样， 这个观点使数学概念与普通用语中等价词之间的关系引起误解。当运用到世间的实物时，parellel 仅能指与几何理想状态大致接近的状况。 一对铁轨或停放的车辆不可能按数学家对于这个术语的理解来真正地相互并行，而不过是大致平行而已，正如公路和架子不可能是真正几何意义上的笔直，但仍可被描绘成很直的或相对而言的笔直。在用到parallel 的比喻用法时，语法学家的不安就更显得意义不大了， 例如：共和党人所面临的重重困难与四年前民主党人遇到的困难十分相似， 在这句话中，该词的引申意义与相交的可能性毫无关系，然而它暗指了两种不同情况结构上的一致。在此意义上，相似性明显是程度的问题，相应地，parallel 一词也能被其它词限定修饰了。 参见 equal,perfect,unique〔put〕An option to sell a stipulated amount of stock or securities within a specified time and at a fixed price.期货买卖：一种在限定的时间和在固定的地点卖出规定的股票或债券的买卖特权〔finite〕from Latin fīnītus [past participle of] fīnīre [to limit] 源自 拉丁语 fīnītus fīnīre的过去分词 [限定，限制] 〔circumscription〕A circumscribed space or area.受限定的空间或区域〔aphorism〕from aphorizein [to delimit, define] 源自 aphorizein [限定，定义] 〔overtime〕Time beyond an established limit, as:超时：超过了限定的时间，如：〔perpetuity〕An estate so limited.永久拥有的房地产：这种限定的房地产〔close〕Confining or narrow; crowded:拥挤的：限定的或狭窄的；拥挤的：〔qindarka〕Albanian qindarka [definite sing. of] qindarkë 阿尔巴尼亚语 qindarka qindarkë 的限定单数 〔amateur〕When Mrs. T.W. Atkinson remarked in her 1863Recollections of the Tartar Steppes and their Inhabitants, "I am no amateur of these melons,” she usedamateur in a sense unfamiliar to us. That sense, "a lover, an admirer,” is, however, clearly descended from the senses of the word's ultimate Latin source,amātor, "lover, devoted friend, devotee, enthusiastic pursuer of an objective,” and from its immediate Latin-derived French source,amateur, with a similar range of meanings. First recorded in English in 1784 with the sense in which Mrs. Atkinson used it,amateur is found in 1786 with a meaning more familiar to us, "a person who engages in an art, for example, as a pastime rather than as a profession,” a sense that had already developed in French.Given the limitations of doing something as an amateur,it is not surprising that the word is soon after recorded in the disparaging sensewe still use to refer to someone who lacks professional skill or ease in performance.当T.W.阿特金森夫人在她1863年出版的塔塔·史坦普和其居民回忆录， 中提到“我并不喜欢这些瓜果”时， 她使用的amateur 是我们所不熟悉的一个意思。 可是这种“爱好者，喜爱者，”的意思显然有其正宗拉丁语来源，amator, 意思是“爱人，忠实的朋友，奉献者，对某目标热情的追求者”， 还有由拉丁语直接派生出的法语来源，amateur, 具有相似的意思。 1784年记录在英语文字中出现的这个词正是阿特金森夫人使用的意思，1786年出现的amateur 有我们更为熟悉的意思， “如一个从事艺术，把它作为一项消遣，而不是一个职业的人，”法语的词早已发展了这种意思。如果把意思限定为从事业余活动的人，这个词被记录下来后不久就有了贬义含意，也就不足为奇了，我们用它来指在表演中缺乏专业技巧或缺乏得心应手的感觉〔can〕Only 21 percent of the Usage Panel acceptscan in the latter sentence. Butcan has a long history of use by educated speakers to express permission, particularly in British English.What is more, the blurring of the line betweencan and may is socially and historically inevitable, since politeness often makes the use ofcan preferable in the "permission" sense. For example, the sentenceYou can borrow my car if you like is a more gracious offer than You may borrow my car; the first presumes the granting of permission,while the second makes a point of it.Still, it is understandable that insistence on the use ofmay should become a traditional schoolroom ritual, particularly in first-person requests such as 用法专题使用小组中只有21%的成员接纳can 用于后面一句中。 但can 被受过教育的说话者用于表示许可已有很长的历史， 尤其是在大不列颠英语中。而且，can 和 may 之间不明显的界限从社会和历史渊源上说也是不可避免的， 因为礼貌常使can 的使用比较适宜“允许”这个意义。 例如，句子如你想要的话，你可以借用我的车 是比 你可以借用我的车； 亲切得多的提议， 第一句假定表示许可，而第二句却限定于这一点。然而，主张may 的用法应成为课堂内的惯例也是可以理解的， 尤其是在第一人称中，如 〔border〕Margin is a border of more or less precisely definable width that is often distinguishable in other respects from the rest of the surface: Margin 是指一种可精确限定宽度的边界，该宽度的其他方面与表面的其余部分是可分辨的： 〔vicinage〕A limited region around a particular area; a vicinity.附近地区：在一特定地区周围有限定的区域；邻近地区〔qualify〕To modify, limit, or restrict, as by giving exceptions.修饰：修饰、限定或限制，如通过给出异议〔caveat〕To qualify with a warning or clarification:以警告限定，以说明限定：〔periclase〕Greek peri- [intensive pref.] * see peri- 希腊语 peri- [前缀，表限定] * 参见 peri-〔limit〕To fix definitely; to specify.规定，指定：明确地规定；限定 |
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