| 单词 | 开头时 |
| 释义 | 〔that〕thanI take it that she has passed the test. Thatshould not be omitted, however, when the subordinate clause begins with an adverbial phrase or any element other than the subject: 好于I take it that she has passed the test。 然而，当从句以副词短语开头或其它不是主语的成份开头时，that不能省略： 〔stalactite〕The wordsstalagmite and stalactite have confused many a person. A look into the history of the Greek sources of these two words may help.Both words can be traced back to the wordstalassein, "to drip,” which is appropriatesince both words denote deposits in caves formed by the dripping of mineral-rich water.The Greek base from whichstalassein was formed was stalak- and to this base were added several endings that concern us,specifically-ma, a noun suffix most frequently denoting the result of an action, -mo-, a suffix denoting the action of a verb as well as a result, and -to-, an adjective suffix forming verbal adjectives. With these suffixes and the addition of the inflectional endings, as well as a sound change from (k) to (g) before (m),we getstalagma, "that which drops, a drop,” stalagmos, "dropping, dripping of stalactites,” and stalaktos, "dropping, dripping.” Using these Greek words,Olaus Wormius formed the Modern Latin wordstalactītēs, the stalac- part meaning "dripping" and the-ītēs part being commonly used to name fossils and minerals when preceded by a form expressing a physical characteristic, in this case "dripping.” Wormius also used the termstalagmītēs, the stalag- portion expressing the notion of what drops, taken either fromstalagma, "that which drops, a drop,” or stalagmos, "dropping of stalactites.” Stalactītēs and stalagmītēs, of course, are the sources of our English words stalactite (first recorded in 1677), the formation on the tops of caves, and stalagmite (first recorded in 1681), the formation on the bottoms of caves. They have been causing trouble ever since.单词stalagmite 和 stalactite 令许多人混淆。 对这两个词的希腊起源历史进行研究可能会帮助理解。这两个字都能追溯到单词stalassein （“滴下”）， 这是很恰当的，因为两个字都表示洞里由富含矿物的水下滴而形成的沉积。形成stalassein 的希腊根源是 stalak- ， 在这个根源上加上几个与我们有关的词尾，特别是-ma （往往用来表示动作结果的名词后缀）， -mo- （用来表示动词的动作和结果的后缀）和 -to- （形成动词性形容词的形容词后缀）。 通过这些后缀和屈折变化词尾的添加以及在(m)前面由(k)到(g)的变音，我们得到了stalagma （“滴下的东西，一滴”）、 stalagmos “滴，滴下钟乳石”和 stalaktos （“落下，滴下的”）。 利用这些希腊字，奥罗斯·沃米斯组成了现代拉丁单词stalactites ， stalac- 意指“滴”。 而-ites 当由一个表示物理特征的形式开头时，通常用来表示化石和矿物，指“滴下”。 沃米斯也使用stalagmites ， stalag- 表示滴下的东西的概念， 源于stalagma （“滴下的东西，一滴”）或 stalagmos （“滴下的钟乳石”）。 stalacitites 和 stalagmites ，当然是我们的英语单词 stalactite （首次出现于1677年）即洞穴顶部的形成物和 stalagmite （最早记载于1681年）即洞穴底部的形成物的源头。 自那以后它们就常造成一些麻烦〔hardly〕The use ofhardly with a negative is avoided in Standard English. Some critics have been puzzled that adverbs such ashardly, rarely, and scarcely should be treated as negatives in the traditional strictures against double negation, which tars sentences likeI couldn't hardly see him with the same brush as I didn't get none. After all, they argue, the sentenceMary hardly laughed entails that Mary did laugh, not that she didn't,and therefore does not express a negative proposition.Buthardly and scarcely occur with other negative expressions in a number of ways. For one thing, they combine with items such asany and at all, which are characteristically associated with negative contexts: we sayI hardly saw him at all or I never saw him at all but notI occasionally saw him at all; we sayI hardly had any time or I didn't have any time but notI had any time, and so on. Like other negative adverbs,hardly triggers inversion of the subject and auxiliary when it begins a sentence. Thus we sayHardly had I arrived when she left, on the pattern of Never have I read such a book or At no time has he condemned the movement. Such inversion is not used with other adverbs:we would not sayOccasionally has he addressed this question or To a slight degree have they changed their position. The fact is that adverbs such ashardly are semantically negative in that they qualify a state or an event relative to the limiting case of nonoccurrence.Thus the meaning ofhardly is, roughly, "almost not at all"; the meaning ofrarely is "practically never"; and so forth. These adverbs are felt to have a negative component in their meaning,and it should not be surprising that grammarians have reacted to combinations ofhardly with negatives in the same way that they have reacted to combinations of pairs of negatives such as not and none. See Usage Note at double negative ,rarely ,scarcely Hardly 和一个否定词在一起的用法在标准英语中应尽量避免， 一些批评学家一直怀疑象hardly，rarely 和 scarcely 这样的副词在传统的双重否定的句中应被视为否定词， 这样的词使句子象I couldn't hardly see him 和 I didn't get none 一样被弄糟了， 他们争论说，毕竟句子Mary hardly laughed 的意思是玛丽的确笑了， 而不是她没笑，所以不表示否定的建议。但是hardly 和 scarcely 和其他的否定表示一起在许多方面出现， 举例说，他们和象any 和 at all 这样独特的和否定上下文联系的条目组合在一起， 我们说I hardly saw him at all 或 I never saw him at all , 但并不是I occasionally saw him at all； 我们说I hardly had any time 或 I didn't have any time 但不是I had any time 等。 象其它否定副词，hardly 在句子开头时引起主语和助动词的倒装， 于是我们说Hardly had I arrived when she left， 和 Never have I read such a book 或 At no time has he condemned the movement. 等同样的句型。 别的副词并不用这样的倒装：我们不能说Occasionally has he addressed this question 或 To a slight degree have they changed their position 。 事实是象hardly 这样的副词语义上是否定的， 他们限定修饰了与不发生有关的状态或事件。于是hardly 的意思大概是“几乎根本不”； rarely 的意思大概是“实际上没有”；等等。 这些副词在他们的意思里留有否定的成分，语法学家们对hardly 和否定词组合的反应和对一对否定词如 not 和 none组合的反应一样是不足为奇的 参见 double negative,rarely,scarcely |
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