| 单词 | 辞书 |
| 释义 | 〔Johnson〕British writer and lexicographer. The leading literary figure in the second half of the 18th century, he wroteDictionary of the English Language (1755) and Lives of the Poets (1779-1781). 约翰逊，塞缪尔：(1709-1784) 英国作家，辞书编纂者。他是18世纪下半叶最重要的文学界人物，著有《英语辞典》 (1755年）和 《诗人传记》 (1779-1781年） 〔shakedown〕In 1969 a majority of the members of theAmerican Heritage Dictionary Usage Panel felt that the noun shakedown in the sense "extortion" and the related phrasal verb shake down were acceptable in writing, though both are now labeledslang. It would seem that certain usages take a while to attain respectability because of the company they keep.Shake and the verb phrase shake out of already meant "to steal" in Middle English. This usage ofshake is still found in the 19th and 20th centuries. Bothshake and shake out of in the sense "to steal" are clearly related to shake down, which is first recorded in 1872, shake down being glossed "to extort money from individuals.” This is a slang usage,probably occurring, as had the verbshake, largely in contexts having to do with criminal or corrupt behavior. As our Panel realized,the verb and the later nounshakedown (first recorded in 1902 in the United States) have now moved from the lingo of criminals, loan sharks, and politicians into wider currency. 1969年，大多数美国经典辞书 用法研究小组的成员认为名词 shakedown （意为“敲诈”）及相关的短语动词 shake down 在写作中是可接受的， 虽然现在两者均被标以俚语。 与之有关的意义似乎有些用法需要一些时间来获得社会的承认。在中世纪英语中，Shake 和 shake out of 已经意味着“偷盗” 。 shake 的这种用法仍见于19世纪和20世纪。 Shake 及 shake out of （意为“偷盗”）明显与 shake down （首次记载于1872年）有所联系。 shake down 被解释为“从个人处敲诈金钱”。 这是俚语用法，很可能如动词shake 一样，大量用于与犯罪或腐败行为有关的语境中。 正如我们的用法研究小组所意识到的，该动词及后来的名词shakedown （在美国最早记载于1902年）已从罪犯、高利贷者及政客的语汇发展到更广泛的使用领域 〔gauntlet〕In the first and second editions ofThe American Heritage Dictionary Usage Notes explained why the spelling gauntlet is acceptable for bothgauntlet 1 and gauntlet 2. Such has not always been the case.The story ofgauntlet 1, as into throw down the gauntlet, is unexciting: it comes from the Old French wordgantelet, a diminutive of gant, "glove.” From the time of its appearance in Middle English (in a work composed in 1449),the word has been spelled with anau as well as an a, still a possible spelling. But the othergauntlet, as into run the gauntlet, is an alteration of the earlier English formgantlope, which came from the Swedish wordgatlopp, a compound ofgata, "lane,” and lopp, "course.” The earliest recorded form of the English word,found in 1646,isgantelope, showing that alteration of the Swedish word had already occurred. The English word was then influenced by the spelling of the wordgauntlet, "glove,” and in 1676 we find the first recorded instance of the spellinggauntlet for this word, althoughgantelope is found as late as 1836. From then on spellings withau and a are both found. Theau seems to have won out, although one could say that thea is preferable because it reflects the Swedish source.In regard to a word that has been so altered in form,this seems a rather fine point.在第一和第二版的美国经典辞书 的用法说明解释了为什么拼写 gauntlet 是可接受的， 既对于gauntlet 1，又对于 gauntlet 2。 情况并不总是这样。gauntlet 1的故事， 如在拒绝挑战 中并不令人激动： 它来自于一法语老词gantelet ， gant 的小词缀“手套”。 自从它在中古英语出现之后（在1449年编的一著作中），这个词同au 的拼写已同 a 一样仍是可能的拼写形式。 但是另一个gauntlet ， 如在接受挑战 中， 是早期英语形式gantlope 的一个变体， 其来自于一瑞典词gatlopp ， gata “巷子”和 lopp “方向”的组合。 最早的这个英语单词的记录，出现于1646年，是gantelope ，表示这个瑞典单词的变体已出现。 这个英语单词然后被单词gauntlet “手套”的拼写所影响， 在1676年，我们发现了gauntlet 第一个有记录的例子， 尽管gantelope 直到1836年才发现。 此后，带有au 和 a 的拼写形式都被发现过。 au 似乎占优势， 尽管一个人可能说a 更好， 因它反映了瑞典语源。说到一个形式已发生了如此变化的单词，这似乎是个好建议〔hectic〕In the Usage Panel survey done for the first edition of theAmerican Heritage Dictionary (1969), 92 percent of the Panel approved of the use ofhectic in its most familiar sense, "characterized by feverish activity, confusion, or haste.”The question was put to the Panelbecause in earlier usage that sense was sometimes deprecated as a loose extension of the term's meaning in medicine.Unless one has some medical knowledgeone probably does not know the older medical uses of the term,for example, "relating to an undulating fever, such as those accompanying tuberculosis,”and unless one has some acquaintance with Middle Englishone would not recognize the first recorded instance of the word,etik, in a text written before 1398. The Middle English term comes from the Old French development of the Late Latin wordhecticus, whose form helped reshape our word in the 16th century.Late Latinhecticus in turn comes from Greek hektikos, "formed by habit or forming habit" and "consumptive,” developing the last sense because of the chronic nature of tuberculous fevers.Thus a word that once simply meant "habitual"eventually had an English descendant used to refer to circumstances that would be undesirable if they were habitual.在针对美国经典辞书 （1969年）第一版对用法专题使用小组的调查中， 92%的成员赞成hectic 一词最常用的意思， “以紧张的活动、忙乱或慌忙为特征的”。之所以要向这些成员提这个问题，是因为作为该词医学含义的模糊延伸，这个意义有时不为人们所接受。除非某人有医学方面的知识，否则他就很可能不知道这个词在医学方面的古老用法，比如“和起伏不定的热病有关的，如肺结核的伴随症”。另外，除非某人对中古英语有一度程度的了解，否则他也认不出1398年以前的一个文本中该词的首例etik 。 这个中古英语单词是由古法语经后期拉丁语hecticus 一词的发展而来的， 其形式在16世纪帮助重新形成了这个单词。而后期拉丁语中的这个词hecticus 又是由希腊语中的 hektikos 一词而来，这个词在希腊语中意指“由习惯形成的或形成习惯的”及“患肺痨的，肺痨的”， 之所以得到最后的意思，是出于肺痨病的特性。这样一来，原来只是表示“习惯性的”这个词，传到英语中最后竟变成了指一旦成为习惯则不被人所喜爱的情形〔internecine〕In the first edition of theAmerican Heritage Dictionary 91 percent of the Usage Panel approved the use ofinternecine relating to internal struggle within a nation or organization that did not necessarily imply fatal or destructive conflict.The objection that had been overcome for most of the Panel was thatinternecine should imply such destruction because it came from the Latin wordinternecīnus, a variant ofinternecīvus, "fought to the death, murderous,” ultimately derived fromnecāre, "to kill.” Inter- in this compound is simply an intensive, supplying the notion of "all the way to" in the sense "fought to the death.”Internecine in English, first recorded in 1663, indeed meant "deadly, destructive,”but Samuel Johnson, inserting the word in his dictionary of 1755,thought thatinter- meant "mutual" and so defined it as "endeavoring mutual destruction.”This definition set the word incorrectly on its present course,and wheninternecine was further extended simply to mean "relating to internal struggle,” the original error was compounded.However, the point is that the meaning of words can be changed by mistakes and that mistaken meanings adhere to words.Only an occasional etymologist points out that the emperor's new clothes are patched.在美国经典辞书 第一版中， 百分之九十一的用法专题使用小组成员赞同internecine 与一个国家或组织内部的斗争有关， 但并不一定是致命的或有破坏性的冲突。为大多数小组成员说服的反对意见为internecine 应该暗指这种破坏， 因为它来源于拉丁词internecinus ， 是internecivus 的变体，意为“战至死亡的，谋杀的”， 它最终来源于意为“杀害”的necare 。 在这个复合词中inter- 只是简单的一个强调成分， 在“战至死亡的”这个意义上加上“一直”这个概念。在英语中internecine 最早记载于1663年， 确实意味着“致死的，破坏性的”，但是塞缪尔·约翰逊在其1755年的字典中插入此词，认为inter- 意为“共同的”， 并且将它定义为“竭力造成共同破坏的”。这个定义造成此词今日用法的不准确，而且当internecine 更进一步被简单地引申为“关于内部斗争的”时， 其起源的错误就加重了。但是，重要的是词的意思被错误改变并且为错误意思所追随。只有偶尔的一个词源学家指出“皇帝的新衣服打满补丁”〔rattle〕A large proportion (86 percent) of the Usage Panel approved the use of the verbrattle in the sense "to unnerve" in the first edition ofThe American Heritage Dictionary, published in 1969. But we may ask how the verbrattle came to have such a sense. The earliest use of the word is found in a name,Johannes Ratellebagg, recorded in a document of around 1273; the earliest use of the word as a common noun (in the sense "to flap, used of a banner") is found in a work written about 1300and copied in manuscript around 1330.It is thought that the word probably comes from Middle Dutchratelen, which may be imitative in origin. In any case,the wordratelen was used mainly in intransitive senses such as "to make a rattling sound.”Already in Middle English, however, the transitive sense "to babble something" existed,and other transitive senses,as in "to make something rattle,” "to stir up, rouse,” "to drive in a rapid, rattling manner,” came into existence from the 16th century on.The transitive sense "to unnerve,”that is, "to make somebody rattle,” is first found in an American work of 1869.词语用法专题小组中有相当一部分人（百分之八十六）都同意rattle 这个词有“使人不安”的意思， 1969年出版的美国经典辞书 第一版收录了这一意思。 但人们不禁要问动词rattle 为何有了这个意思。 该词最早的使用发现于1273年前后记载的一个文件中的Johannes Ratellebagg 这个名字中； 1300年这个词第一次被用作普通名词（意为“飘扬，用于旗帜”），1330年又见于手抄的印本中。人们认为这个词可能来自原来可能是拟声词的中古德语ratelen 。 不过无论怎样，ratelen 这个词本来只是作为不及物动词来使用， 如发出嘎嘎声等意思。在中古英语中，“含糊不清地说出”这一及物动词的意思就已存在，该词其它的及物意思，如“使发出嘎嘎声”、“激起，唤醒”“嘎嘎响地急速向前拖”从16世纪开始就形成了。及物意思“使不安，”即“使某人惊慌”首先出现于1869年的美国作品中 |
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